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Bhat RAH, Khangembam VC, Pant V, Tandel RS, Pandey PK, Thakuria D. Antibacterial activity of a short de novo designed peptide against fish bacterial pathogens. Amino Acids 2024; 56:28. [PMID: 38578302 PMCID: PMC10997546 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-024-03388-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
In the face of increasing antimicrobial resistance in aquaculture, researchers are exploring novel substitutes to customary antibiotics. One potential solution is the use of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). We aimed to design and evaluate a novel, short, and compositionally simple AMP with potent activity against various bacterial pathogens in aquaculture. The resulting peptide, KK12YW, has an amphipathic nature and net charge of + 7. Molecular docking experiments disclosed that KK12YW has a strong affinity for aerolysin, a virulence protein produced by the bacterial pathogen Aeromonas sobria. KK12YW was synthesized using Fmoc chemistry and tested against a range of bacterial pathogens, including A. sobria, A. salmonicida, A. hydrophila, Edwardsiella tarda, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and methicillin-resistant S. aureus. The AMP showed promising antibacterial activity, with MIC and MBC values ranging from 0.89 to 917.1 µgmL-1 and 3.67 to 1100.52 µgmL-1, respectively. In addition, KK12YW exhibited resistance to high temperatures and remained effective even in the presence of serum and salt, indicating its stability. The peptide also demonstrated minimal hemolysis toward fish RBCs, even at higher concentrations. Taken together, these findings indicate that KK12YW could be a highly promising and viable substitute for conventional antibiotics to combat microbial infections in aquaculture.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Victoria C Khangembam
- ICAR-Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Bhimtal, 263136, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Vinita Pant
- ICAR-Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Bhimtal, 263136, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Ritesh Shantilal Tandel
- ICAR-Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Bhimtal, 263136, Uttarakhand, India
- Navsari Gujarat Research Centre, ICAR-Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, Navsari, 396 450, Gujarat, India
| | - Pramod Kumar Pandey
- ICAR-Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Bhimtal, 263136, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Dimpal Thakuria
- ICAR-Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Bhimtal, 263136, Uttarakhand, India.
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Stannard HJ, Miller RD, Old JM. Marsupial and monotreme milk-a review of its nutrient and immune properties. PeerJ 2020; 8:e9335. [PMID: 32612884 PMCID: PMC7319036 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.9335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
All mammals are characterized by the ability of females to produce milk. Marsupial (metatherian) and monotreme (prototherian) young are born in a highly altricial state and rely on their mother’s milk for the first part of their life. Here we review the role and importance of milk in marsupial and monotreme development. Milk is the primary source of sustenance for young marsupials and monotremes and its composition varies at different stages of development. We applied nutritional geometry techniques to a limited number of species with values available to analyze changes in macronutrient composition of milk at different stages. Macronutrient energy composition of marsupial milk varies between species and changes concentration during the course of lactation. As well as nourishment, marsupial and monotreme milk supplies growth and immune factors. Neonates are unable to mount a specific immune response shortly after birth and therefore rely on immunoglobulins, immunological cells and other immunologically important molecules transferred through milk. Milk is also essential to the development of the maternal-young bond and is achieved through feedback systems and odor preferences in eutherian mammals. However, we have much to learn about the role of milk in marsupial and monotreme mother-young bonding. Further research is warranted in gaining a better understanding of the role of milk as a source of nutrition, developmental factors and immunity, in a broader range of marsupial species, and monotremes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayley J Stannard
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
| | - Robert D Miller
- Center for Evolutionary and Theoretical Immunology, Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Julie M Old
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
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Zhang Z, Wang Z, Dang Y, Wang J, Jayaprakash S, Wang H, He J. Transcriptomic Prediction of Pig Liver-Enriched Gene 1 Functions in a Liver Cell Line. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:genes11040412. [PMID: 32290278 PMCID: PMC7230230 DOI: 10.3390/genes11040412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The newly identified liver-enriched gene 1 (LEG1) encodes a protein with a characteristic domain of unknown function 781 (DUF781/LEG1), constituting a protein family with only one member in mammals. A functional study in zebrafish suggested that LEG1 genes are involved in liver development, while the platypus LEG1 homolog, Monotreme Lactation Protein (MLP), which is enriched in the mammary gland and milk, acts as an antibacterial substance. However, no functional studies on eutherian LEG1s have been published to date. Thus, we here report the first functional prediction study at the cellular level. As previously reported, eutherian LEG1s can be classified into three paralogous groups. Pigs have all three LEG1 genes (pLEG1s), while humans and mice have retained only LEG1a. Hence, pLEG1s might represent an ideal model for studying LEG1 gene functions. RNA-seq was performed by the overexpression of pLEG1s and platypus MLP in HepG2 cells. Enrichment analysis showed that pLEG1a and pLEG1b might exhibit little function in liver cells; however, pLEG1c is probably involved in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response and protein folding. Additionally, gene set enrichment analysis revealed that platypus MLP shows antibacterial activity, confirming the functional study in platypus. Therefore, our study showed from the transcriptomic perspective that mammalian LEG1s have different functions in liver cells due to the subfunctionalization of paralogous genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Zhang
- Department of Animal Science, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (Z.Z.); (Y.D.); (J.W.)
| | - Zizengchen Wang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (Z.W.); (H.W.)
| | - Yanna Dang
- Department of Animal Science, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (Z.Z.); (Y.D.); (J.W.)
| | - Jinyang Wang
- Department of Animal Science, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (Z.Z.); (Y.D.); (J.W.)
| | - Sakthidasan Jayaprakash
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai 603103, India;
| | - Huanan Wang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (Z.W.); (H.W.)
| | - Jin He
- Department of Animal Science, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (Z.Z.); (Y.D.); (J.W.)
- Correspondence:
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Neerukonda M, Pavuluri S, Sharma I, Kumar A, Sailasree P, Lakshmi JB, Sharp JA, Kumar S. Functional evaluation of a monotreme-specific antimicrobial protein, EchAMP, against experimentally induced mastitis in transgenic mice. Transgenic Res 2019; 28:573-587. [PMID: 31599375 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-019-00174-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
EchAMP, the tenth most abundant transcript expressed in the mammary gland of echidna, has in vitro broad-spectrum antibacterial effects. However, the effects of EchAMP on mastitis, a condition where inflammation is triggered following mammary gland infection, has not been investigated. To investigate the impact of EchAMP against mastitis, EchAMP transgenic mice were generated. In antibacterial assays, the whey fractions of milk from transgenic mice significantly reduced growth of Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa compared with whey fractions from wildtype mice. Furthermore, a mastitis model created by infecting mammary gland with these four bacterial strains displayed a significant reduction in bacterial load in transgenic mice injected with S. aureus and B. subtilis. On further confirmation, histomorphologic analysis showed absence of necrosis and cell infiltration in the mammary glands of transgenic mice. To understand the role of EchAMP against inflammation, we employed an LPS-injected mastitis mouse model. LPS is known to induce phopshorylation of NF-κB and MAPK pathways, which in turn activate downstream proinflammatory signaling mediators, to promote inflammation. In LPS-treated EchAMP transgenic mice, phosphorylation levels of NF-κB, p38 and ERK1/2 were significantly downregulated. Furthermore, in mammary gland of transgenic mice, there was a significant downregulation of mRNA levels of proinflammatory cytokines, namely TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β. Taken together, these data suggest that EchAMP has an antiinflammatory response and is effective against S. aureus and B. subtilis. We suggest that EchAMP may be a potential prophylactic protein against mastitis in dairy animals by expressing this gene in their mammary gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manjusha Neerukonda
- Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India.,University Medical Centre, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | | | - Isha Sharma
- Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India.,Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Alok Kumar
- Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India
| | | | | | - Julie A Sharp
- Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Australia
| | - Satish Kumar
- Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad, India. .,Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Central University of Haryana, Jant-Pali, Mahendergarh, Haryana, 123031, India.
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Nicol SC, Andersen NA, Morrow GE, Harris RL. Spurs, sexual dimorphism and reproductive maturity in Tasmanian echidnas (Tachyglossus aculeatus setosus). AUSTRALIAN MAMMALOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1071/am18005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
We present data from an 18-year study of a wild population of Tasmanian echidnas, which show that the presence of spurs in an adult are a reliable indicator of sex, and that there is a slight but significant sexual dimorphism in size, with a male to female mass ratio of 1.1. Minimum age at first breeding in the wild for Tasmanian echidnas was 5 years, as has been found on Kangaroo Island, compared with 3 years in captive echidnas. It is often assumed that although the echidna is distributed throughout Australia, New Guinea and off-shore islands that all aspects of its basic biology are the same in all populations, but comparisons of our results with data from other populations suggest that there may be differences in size and sexual dimorphism.
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Newman J, Sharp JA, Enjapoori AK, Bentley J, Nicholas KR, Adams TE, Peat TS. Structural characterization of a novel monotreme-specific protein with antimicrobial activity from the milk of the platypus. Acta Crystallogr F Struct Biol Commun 2018; 74:39-45. [PMID: 29372906 PMCID: PMC5947691 DOI: 10.1107/s2053230x17017708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Monotreme lactation protein (MLP) is a recently identified protein with antimicrobial activity. It is present in the milk of monotremes and is unique to this lineage. To characterize MLP and to gain insight into the potential role of this protein in the evolution of lactation, the crystal structure of duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) MLP was determined at 1.82 Å resolution. This is the first structure to be reported for this novel, mammalian antibacterial protein. MLP was expressed as a FLAG epitope-tagged protein in mammalian cells and crystallized readily, with at least three space groups being observed (P1, C2 and P21). A 1.82 Å resolution native data set was collected from a crystal in space group P1, with unit-cell parameters a = 51.2, b = 59.7, c = 63.1 Å, α = 80.15, β = 82.98, γ = 89.27°. The structure was solved by SAD phasing using a protein crystal derivatized with mercury in space group C2, with unit-cell parameters a = 92.7, b = 73.2, c = 56.5 Å, β = 90.28°. MLP comprises a monomer of 12 helices and two short β-strands, with much of the N-terminus composed of loop regions. The crystal structure of MLP reveals no three-dimensional similarity to any known structures and reveals a heretofore unseen fold, supporting the idea that monotremes may be a rich source for the identification of novel proteins. It is hypothesized that MLP in monotreme milk has evolved to specifically support the unusual lactation strategy of this lineage and may have played a central role in the evolution of these mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet Newman
- Biomedical Manufacturing, CSIRO, 343 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Julie A. Sharp
- Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3217, Australia
| | | | - John Bentley
- Biomedical Manufacturing, CSIRO, 343 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Kevin R. Nicholas
- Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3217, Australia
| | - Timothy E. Adams
- Biomedical Manufacturing, CSIRO, 343 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Thomas S. Peat
- Biomedical Manufacturing, CSIRO, 343 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
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Sharp JA, Wanyonyi S, Modepalli V, Watt A, Kuruppath S, Hinds LA, Kumar A, Abud HE, Lefevre C, Nicholas KR. The tammar wallaby: A marsupial model to examine the timed delivery and role of bioactives in milk. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2017; 244:164-177. [PMID: 27528357 PMCID: PMC6408724 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2016.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
It is now clear that milk has multiple functions; it provides the most appropriate nutrition for growth of the newborn, it delivers a range of bioactives with the potential to stimulate development of the young, it has the capacity to remodel the mammary gland (stimulate growth or signal cell death) and finally milk can provide protection from infection and inflammation when the mammary gland is susceptible to these challenges. There is increasing evidence to support studies using an Australian marsupial, the tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii), as an interesting and unique model to study milk bioactives. Reproduction in the tammar wallaby is characterized by a short gestation, birth of immature young and a long lactation. All the major milk constituents change substantially and progressively during lactation and these changes have been shown to regulate growth and development of the tammar pouch young and to have roles in mammary gland biology. This review will focus on recent reports examining the control of lactation in the tammar wallaby and the timed delivery of milk bioactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Sharp
- Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Geelong 3216, Australia; Cancer Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Stephen Wanyonyi
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong 3216, Australia; Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia
| | | | - Ashalyn Watt
- Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Geelong 3216, Australia
| | | | - Lyn A Hinds
- CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Amit Kumar
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong 3216, Australia; PeterMac Callum Cancer Research Institute, East Melbourne 3002, Victoria, Australia
| | - Helen E Abud
- Cancer Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Victoria, Australia
| | - Christophe Lefevre
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong 3216, Australia; Division of Bioinformatics, Walter and Eliza Hall Medical Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia; PeterMac Callum Cancer Research Institute, East Melbourne 3002, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology (WEHI), The University of Melbourne, Melbourne 3000, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kevin R Nicholas
- Cancer Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Victoria, Australia
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Urashima T, Inamori H, Fukuda K, Saito T, Messer M, Oftedal OT. 4-O-Acetyl-sialic acid (Neu4,5Ac2) in acidic milk oligosaccharides of the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) and its evolutionary significance. Glycobiology 2015; 25:683-97. [DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwv010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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Sharp JA, Modepalli V, Enjapoori AK, Bisana S, Abud HE, Lefevre C, Nicholas KR. Bioactive Functions of Milk Proteins: a Comparative Genomics Approach. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2014; 19:289-302. [PMID: 26115887 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-015-9331-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The composition of milk includes factors required to provide appropriate nutrition for the growth of the neonate. However, it is now clear that milk has many functions and comprises bioactive molecules that play a central role in regulating developmental processes in the young while providing a protective function for both the suckled young and the mammary gland during the lactation cycle. Identifying these bioactives and their physiological function in eutherians can be difficult and requires extensive screening of milk components that may function to improve well-being and options for prevention and treatment of disease. New animal models with unique reproductive strategies are now becoming increasingly relevant to search for these factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Sharp
- Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Geelong, 3216, Australia,
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Enjapoori AK, Grant TR, Nicol SC, Lefèvre CM, Nicholas KR, Sharp JA. Monotreme lactation protein is highly expressed in monotreme milk and provides antimicrobial protection. Genome Biol Evol 2014; 6:2754-73. [PMID: 25245409 PMCID: PMC4224336 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evu209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Monotremes (platypus and echidna) are the descendants of the oldest ancestor of all extant mammals distinguished from other mammals by mode of reproduction. Monotremes lay eggs following a short gestation period and after an even briefer incubation period, altricial hatchlings are nourished over a long lactation period with milk secreted by nipple-less mammary patches located on the female’s abdomen. Milk is the sole source of nutrition and immune protection for the developing young until weaning. Using transcriptome and mass spectrometry analysis of milk cells and milk proteins, respectively, a novel Monotreme Lactation Protein (MLP) was identified as a major secreted protein in milk. We show that platypus and short-beaked echidna MLP genes show significant homology and are unique to monotremes. The MLP transcript was shown to be expressed in a variety of tissues; however, highest expression was observed in milk cells and was expressed constitutively from early to late lactation. Analysis of recombinant MLP showed that it is an N-linked glycosylated protein and biophysical studies predicted that MLP is an amphipathic, α-helical protein, a typical feature of antimicrobial proteins. Functional analysis revealed MLP antibacterial activity against both opportunistic pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus and commensal Enterococcus faecalis bacteria but showed no effect on Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Salmonella enterica. Our data suggest that MLP is an evolutionarily ancient component of milk-mediated innate immunity absent in other mammals. We propose that MLP evolved specifically in the monotreme lineage supporting the evolution of lactation in these species to provide bacterial protection, at a time when mammals lacked nipples.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tom R Grant
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Stewart C Nicol
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | | | - Kevin R Nicholas
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Julie A Sharp
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
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Kütt ML, Stagsted J. Caseins from bovine colostrum and milk strongly bind piscidin-1, an antimicrobial peptide from fish. Int J Biol Macromol 2014; 70:364-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2014.06.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2014] [Revised: 06/25/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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12
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Oftedal OT, Nicol SC, Davies NW, Sekii N, Taufik E, Fukuda K, Saito T, Urashima T. Can an ancestral condition for milk oligosaccharides be determined? Evidence from the Tasmanian echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus setosus). Glycobiology 2014; 24:826-39. [DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwu041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Olav T Oftedal
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Smithsonian Institution, Edgewater, MD 21037, USA
| | | | - Noel W Davies
- Central Science Laboratory, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia
| | - Nobuhiro Sekii
- Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Epi Taufik
- Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Kenji Fukuda
- Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
| | - Tadao Saito
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi 981-8555, Japan
| | - Tadasu Urashima
- Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido 080-8555, Japan
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