The angiotensin II type 1 receptor C-terminal Lys residues interact with tubulin and modulate receptor export trafficking

Segregation of nascent GPCRs in the ER-to-Golgi transport by CCHCR1 via direct interaction

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest superfamily of cell surface signaling proteins that share a common structural topology. When compared with agonist-induced internalization, how GPCRs are sorted and delivered to functional destinations after synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is much less well understood. Here, we demonstrate that depletion of coiled-coil α-helical rod protein 1 (CCHCR1) by siRNA and CRISPR-Cas9 significantly inhibits surface expression and signaling of α2A-adrenergic receptor (α2A-AR; also known as ADRA2A), without affecting α2B-AR. Further studies show that CCHCR1 depletion specifically impedes α2A-AR export from the ER to the Golgi, but not from the Golgi to the surface. We also demonstrate that CCHCR1 selectively interacts with α2A-AR. The interaction is mediated through multiple domains of both proteins and is ionic in nature. Moreover, mutating CCHCR1-binding motifs significantly attenuates ER-to-Golgi export, surface expression and signaling of α2A-AR. Collectively, these data reveal a novel function for CCHCR1 in intracellular protein trafficking, indicate that closely related GPCRs can be sorted into distinct ER-to-Golgi transport routes by CCHCR1 via direct interaction, and provide important insights into segregation and anterograde delivery of nascent GPCR members.

Angiotensin II type 1 receptor localizes at the blood-bile barrier in humans and pigs

Animal models and clinical studies suggest an influence of angiotensin II (AngII) on the pathogenesis of liver diseases via the renin–angiotensin system. AngII application increases portal blood pressure, reduces bile flow, and increases permeability of liver tight junctions. Establishing the subcellular localization of angiotensin II receptor type 1 (AT1R), the main AngII receptor, helps to understand the effects of AngII on the liver. We localized AT1R in situ in human and porcine liver and porcine gallbladder by immunohistochemistry. In order to do so, we characterized commercial anti-AT1R antibodies regarding their capability to recognize heterologous human AT1R in immunocytochemistry and on western blots, and to detect AT1R using overlap studies and AT1R-specific blocking peptides. In hepatocytes and canals of Hering, AT1R displayed a tram-track-like distribution, while in cholangiocytes AT1R appeared in a honeycomb-like pattern; i.e., in liver epithelia, AT1R showed an equivalent distribution to that in the apical junctional network, which seals bile canaliculi and bile ducts along the blood–bile barrier. In intrahepatic blood vessels, AT1R was most prominent in the tunica media. We confirmed AT1R localization in situ to the plasma membrane domain, particularly between tight and adherens junctions in both human and porcine hepatocytes, cholangiocytes, and gallbladder epithelial cells using different anti-AT1R antibodies. Localization of AT1R at the junctional complex could explain previously reported AngII effects and predestines AT1R as a transmitter of tight junction permeability.

The Actin Bundling Protein Fascin-1 as an ACE2-Accessory Protein

We have previously shown that angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), an enzyme counterbalancing the deleterious effects of angiotensin type 1 receptor activation by production of vasodilatory peptides Angiotensin (Ang)-(1-9) and Ang-(1-7), is internalized and degraded in lysosomes following chronic Ang-II treatment. However, the molecular mechanisms involved in this effect remain unknown. In an attempt to identify the accessory proteins involved in this effect, we conducted a proteomic analysis in ACE2-transfected HEK293T cells. A single protein, fascin-1, was found to differentially interact with ACE2 after Ang-II treatment for 4 h. The interactions between fascin-1 and ACE2 were confirmed by confocal microscopy and co-immunoprecipitation. Overexpression of fascin-1 attenuates the effects of Ang-II on ACE2 activity. In contrast, downregulation of fascin-1 severely decreased ACE2 enzymatic activity. Interestingly, in brain homogenates from hypertensive mice, we observed a significant reduction of fascin-1, suggesting that the levels of this protein may change in cardiovascular diseases. In conclusion, we identified fascin-1 as an ACE2-accessory protein, interacting with the enzyme in an Ang-II dependent manner and contributing to the regulation of enzyme activity.

Recent Research Advances in Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System Receptors

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) plays important roles in regulating blood pressure and body fluid, which contributes to the pathophysiology of hypertension and cardiovascular/renal diseases. However, accumulating evidence has further revealed the complexity of this signal transduction system, including direct interactions with other receptors and proteins. This review focuses on recent research advances in RAAS with an emphasis on its receptors.

RECENT FINDINGS

Both systemically and locally produced angiotensin II (Ang II) bind to Ang II type 1 receptor (AT1R) and elicit strong biological functions. Recent studies have shown that Ang II-induced activation of Ang II type 2 receptor (AT2R) elicits the opposite functions to those of AT1R. However, accumulating evidence has now expanded the components of RAAS, including (pro)renin receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, angiotensin 1-7, and Mas receptor. In addition, the signal transductions of AT1R and AT2R are regulated by not only Ang II but also its receptor-associated proteins such as AT1R-associated protein and AT2R-interacting protein. Recent studies have indicated that inappropriate activation of local mineralocorticoid receptor contributes to cardiovascular and renal tissue injuries through aldosterone-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Since the mechanisms of RAAS signal transduction still remain to be elucidated, further investigations are necessary to explore novel molecular mechanisms of the RAAS, which will provide alternative therapeutic agents other than existing RAAS blockers.

Angiotensin II Signal Transduction: An Update on Mechanisms of Physiology and Pathophysiology

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system plays crucial roles in cardiovascular physiology and pathophysiology. However, many of the signaling mechanisms have been unclear. The angiotensin II (ANG II) type 1 receptor (AT₁R) is believed to mediate most functions of ANG II in the system. AT₁R utilizes various signal transduction cascades causing hypertension, cardiovascular remodeling, and end organ damage. Moreover, functional cross-talk between AT₁R signaling pathways and other signaling pathways have been recognized. Accumulating evidence reveals the complexity of ANG II signal transduction in pathophysiology of the vasculature, heart, kidney, and brain, as well as several pathophysiological features, including inflammation, metabolic dysfunction, and aging. In this review, we provide a comprehensive update of the ANG II receptor signaling events and their functional significances for potential translation into therapeutic strategies. AT₁R remains central to the system in mediating physiological and pathophysiological functions of ANG II, and participation of specific signaling pathways becomes much clearer. There are still certain limitations and many controversies, and several noteworthy new concepts require further support. However, it is expected that rigorous translational research of the ANG II signaling pathways including those in large animals and humans will contribute to establishing effective new therapies against various diseases.

Mechanisms of the anterograde trafficking of GPCRs: Regulation of AT1R transport by interacting proteins and motifs

Anterograde cell surface transport of nascent G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) en route from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) through the Golgi apparatus represents a crucial checkpoint to control the amount of the receptors at the functional destination and the strength of receptor activation-elicited cellular responses. However, as compared with extensively studied internalization and recycling processes, the molecular mechanisms of cell surface trafficking of GPCRs are relatively less defined. Here, we will review the current advances in understanding the ER-Golgi-cell surface transport of GPCRs and use angiotensin II type 1 receptor as a representative GPCR to discuss emerging roles of receptor-interacting proteins and specific motifs embedded within the receptors in controlling the forward traffic of GPCRs along the biosynthetic pathway.

AT1 receptor signaling pathways in the cardiovascular system

The importance of the renin angiotensin aldosterone system in cardiovascular physiology and pathophysiology has been well described whereas the detailed molecular mechanisms remain elusive. The angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1 receptor) is one of the key players in the renin angiotensin aldosterone system. The AT1 receptor promotes various intracellular signaling pathways resulting in hypertension, endothelial dysfunction, vascular remodeling and end organ damage. Accumulating evidence shows the complex picture of AT1 receptor-mediated signaling; AT1 receptor-mediated heterotrimeric G protein-dependent signaling, transactivation of growth factor receptors, NADPH oxidase and ROS signaling, G protein-independent signaling, including the β-arrestin signals and interaction with several AT1 receptor interacting proteins. In addition, there is functional cross-talk between the AT1 receptor signaling pathway and other signaling pathways. In this review, we will summarize an up to date overview of essential AT1 receptor signaling events and their functional significances in the cardiovascular system.

G protein-coupled receptors directly bind filamin A with high affinity and promote filamin phosphorylation

Although interaction of a few G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) with Filamin A, a key actin cross-linking and biomechanical signal transducer protein, has been observed, a comprehensive structure-function analysis of this interaction is lacking. Through a systematic sequence-based analysis, we found that a conserved filamin binding motif is present in the cytoplasmic domains of >20% of the 824 GPCRs encoded in the human genome. Direct high-affinity interaction of filamin binding motif peptides of select GPCRs with the Ig domain of Filamin A was confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and isothermal titration calorimetric experiments. Engagement of the filamin binding motif with the Filamin A Ig domain induced the phosphorylation of filamin by protein kinase A in vitro. In transfected cells, agonist activation as well as constitutive activation of representative GPCRs dramatically elicited recruitment and phosphorylation of cellular Filamin A, a phenomenon long known to be crucial for regulating the structure and dynamics of the cytoskeleton. Our data suggest a molecular mechanism for direct GPCR-cytoskeleton coupling via filamin. Until now, GPCR signaling to the cytoskeleton was predominantly thought to be indirect, through canonical G protein-mediated signaling cascades involving GTPases, adenylyl cyclases, phospholipases, ion channels, and protein kinases. We propose that the GPCR-induced filamin phosphorylation pathway is a conserved, novel biochemical signaling paradigm.

A single mutation in helix 8 enhances the angiotensin II type 1a receptor transport and signaling

The amphipathic helix 8 in the membrane-proximal C-terminus is a structurally conserved feature of class A seven transmembrane-spanning G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Mutations of this helical motif often cause receptor misfolding, defective cell surface transport and dysfunction. Surprisingly, we demonstrated here that a single point mutation at Lys308 in helix 8 markedly enhanced the steady-state surface density of the angiotensin II type 1a receptor (AT1aR). Consistent with the enhanced cell surface expression, Lys308 mutation significantly augmented AT1aR-mediated mitogen-activated protein kinase ERK1/2 activation, inositol phosphate production, and vascular smooth muscle cell migration. This mutation also increased the overall expression of AT1aR without altering receptor degradation. More interestingly, Lys308 mutation abolished AT1aR interaction with β-COP, a component of COPI transport vesicles, and impaired AT1aR responsiveness to the inhibition of Rab6 GTPase involved in the Golgi-to-ER retrograde pathway. Furthermore, these functions of Lys308 were largely dependent on its positively charged property. These data reveal previously unappreciated functions of helix 8 and novel mechanisms governing the cell surface transport and function of AT1aR.

Steroidogenesis-adrenal cell signal transduction

The purpose of this article is to review fundamentals in adrenal gland histophysiology. Key findings regarding the important signaling pathways involved in the regulation of steroidogenesis and adrenal growth are summarized. We illustrate how adrenal gland morphology and function are deeply interconnected in which novel signaling pathways (Wnt, Sonic hedgehog, Notch, β-catenin) or ionic channels are required for their integrity. Emphasis is given to exploring the mechanisms and challenges underlying the regulation of proliferation, growth, and functionality. Also addressed is the fact that while it is now well-accepted that steroidogenesis results from an enzymatic shuttle between mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, key questions still remain on the various aspects related to cellular uptake and delivery of free cholesterol. The significant progress achieved over the past decade regarding the precise molecular mechanisms by which the two main regulators of adrenal cortex, adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) and angiotensin II act on their receptors is reviewed, including structure-activity relationships and their potential applications. Particular attention has been given to crucial second messengers and how various kinases, phosphatases, and cytoskeleton-associated proteins interact to ensure homeostasis and/or meet physiological demands. References to animal studies are also made in an attempt to unravel associated clinical conditions. Many of the aspects addressed in this article still represent a challenge for future studies, their outcome aimed at providing evidence that the adrenal gland, through its steroid hormones, occupies a central position in many situations where homeostasis is disrupted, thus highlighting the relevance of exploring and understanding how this key organ is regulated. © 2014 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 4:889-964, 2014.

Regulation of α2B-Adrenerigc Receptor Export Trafficking by Specific Motifs

Intracellular trafficking and precise targeting to specific locations of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) control the physiological functions of the receptors. Compared to the extensive efforts dedicated to understanding the events involved in the endocytic and recycling pathways, the molecular mechanisms underlying the transport of the GPCR superfamily from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) through the Golgi to the plasma membrane are relatively less well defined. Over the past years, we have used α(2B)-adrenergic receptor (α(2B)-AR) as a model to define the factors that control GPCR export trafficking. In this chapter, we will review specific motifs identified to mediate the export of nascent α(2B)-AR from the ER and the Golgi and discuss the possible underlying mechanisms. As these motifs are highly conserved among GPCRs, they may provide common mechanisms for export trafficking of these receptors.