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Baulin VE, Kalashnikova IP, Vikharev YB, Vikhareva EA, Baulin DV, Tsivadze AY. Phosphoryl Analogs of Salicylic Acid: Synthesis and Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Activity. RUSS J GEN CHEM+ 2018. [DOI: 10.1134/s1070363218090049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Henschel AM, Cabrera SM, Kaldunski ML, Jia S, Geoffrey R, Roethle MF, Lam V, Chen YG, Wang X, Salzman NH, Hessner MJ. Modulation of the diet and gastrointestinal microbiota normalizes systemic inflammation and β-cell chemokine expression associated with autoimmune diabetes susceptibility. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0190351. [PMID: 29293587 PMCID: PMC5749787 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental changes associated with modern lifestyles may underlie the rising incidence of Type 1 diabetes (T1D). Our previous studies of T1D families and the BioBreeding (BB) rat model have identified a peripheral inflammatory state that is associated with diabetes susceptibility, consistent with pattern recognition receptor ligation, but is independent of disease progression. Here, compared to control strains, islets of spontaneously diabetic BB DRlyp/lyp and diabetes inducible BB DR+/+ weanlings provided a standard cereal diet expressed a robust proinflammatory transcriptional program consistent with microbial antigen exposure that included numerous cytokines/chemokines. The dependence of this phenotype on diet and gastrointestinal microbiota was investigated by transitioning DR+/+ weanlings to a gluten-free hydrolyzed casein diet (HCD) or treating them with antibiotics to alter/reduce pattern recognition receptor ligand exposure. Bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed that these treatments altered the ileal and cecal microbiota, increasing the Firmicutes:Bacteriodetes ratio and the relative abundances of lactobacilli and butyrate producing taxa. While these conditions did not normalize the inherent hyper-responsiveness of DR+/+ rat leukocytes to ex vivo TLR stimulation, they normalized plasma cytokine levels, plasma TLR4 activity levels, the proinflammatory islet transcriptome, and β-cell chemokine expression. In lymphopenic DRlyp/lyp rats, HCD reduced T1D incidence, and the introduction of gluten to this diet induced islet chemokine expression and abrogated protection from diabetes. Overall, these studies link BB rat islet-level immunocyte recruiting potential, as measured by β-cell chemokine expression, to a genetically controlled immune hyper-responsiveness and innate inflammatory state that can be modulated by diet and the intestinal microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela M. Henschel
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- The Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, and The Children’s Research Institute of Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Susanne M. Cabrera
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- The Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, and The Children’s Research Institute of Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Mary L. Kaldunski
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- The Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, and The Children’s Research Institute of Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Shuang Jia
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- The Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, and The Children’s Research Institute of Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Rhonda Geoffrey
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- The Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, and The Children’s Research Institute of Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Mark F. Roethle
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- The Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, and The Children’s Research Institute of Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Vy Lam
- The Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, and The Children’s Research Institute of Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Yi-Guang Chen
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- The Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, and The Children’s Research Institute of Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Xujing Wang
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, the National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Nita H. Salzman
- The Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, and The Children’s Research Institute of Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Martin J. Hessner
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
- The Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, and The Children’s Research Institute of Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States of America
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Roberts FR, Hupple C, Norowski E, Walsh NC, Przewozniak N, Aryee KE, Van Dessel FM, Jurczyk A, Harlan DM, Greiner DL, Bortell R, Yang C. Possible type 1 diabetes risk prediction: Using ultrasound imaging to assess pancreas inflammation in the inducible autoimmune diabetes BBDR model. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0178641. [PMID: 28605395 PMCID: PMC5468055 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0178641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background/Aims Studies of human cadaveric pancreas specimens indicate that pancreas inflammation plays an important role in type 1 diabetes pathogenesis. Due to the inaccessibility of pancreas in living patients, imaging technology to visualize pancreas inflammation is much in need. In this study, we investigated the feasibility of utilizing ultrasound imaging to assess pancreas inflammation longitudinally in living rats during the progression leading to type 1 diabetes onset. Methods The virus-inducible BBDR type 1 diabetes rat model was used to systematically investigate pancreas changes that occur prior to and during development of autoimmunity. The nearly 100% diabetes incidence upon virus induction and the highly consistent time course of this rat model make longitudinal imaging examination possible. A combination of histology, immunoblotting, flow cytometry, and ultrasound imaging technology was used to identify stage-specific pancreas changes. Results Our histology data indicated that exocrine pancreas tissue of the diabetes-induced rats underwent dramatic changes, including blood vessel dilation and increased CD8+ cell infiltration, at a very early stage of disease initiation. Ultrasound imaging data revealed significant acute and persistent pancreas inflammation in the diabetes-induced rats. The pancreas micro-vasculature was significantly dilated one day after diabetes induction, and large blood vessel (superior mesenteric artery in this study) dilation and inflammation occurred several days later, but still prior to any observable autoimmune cell infiltration of the pancreatic islets. Conclusions Our data demonstrate that ultrasound imaging technology can detect pancreas inflammation in living rats during the development of type 1 diabetes. Due to ultrasound’s established use as a non-invasive diagnostic tool, it may prove useful in a clinical setting for type 1 diabetes risk prediction prior to autoimmunity and to assess the effectiveness of potential therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Elaine Norowski
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Nicole C. Walsh
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Natalia Przewozniak
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ken-Edwin Aryee
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Filia M. Van Dessel
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Agata Jurczyk
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - David M. Harlan
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Dale L. Greiner
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Rita Bortell
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Chaoxing Yang
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This report examines recent publications identifying phenotypic and functional heterogeneity among pancreatic β cells and investigating their potential roles in normal and abnormal islet function. The development of new methods and tools for the study of individual islet cells has produced a surge of interest in this topic. RECENT FINDINGS Studies of β cell maturation and pregnancy-induced proliferation have identified changes in serotonin and transcription factors SIX2/3 expression as markers of temporal heterogeneity. Structural and functional heterogeneity in the form of functionally distinct 'hub' and 'follower' β cells was found in mouse islets. Heterogeneous expression of Fltp (in mouse β cells) and ST8SIA1 and CD9 (in human β cells) were associated with distinct functional potential. Several impressive reports describing the transcriptomes of individual β cells were also published in recent months. Some of these reveal previously unknown β cell subpopulations. SUMMARY A wealth of information on functional and phenotypic heterogeneity has been collected recently, including the transcriptomes of individual β cells and the identities of functionally distinct β cell subpopulations. Several studies suggest the existence of two broad categories: a more proliferative but less functional and a less proliferative but more functional β cell type. The identification of functionally distinct subpopulations and their association with type 2 diabetes underlines the potential clinical importance of these investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaoxing Yang
- Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts
| | - Feorillo Galivo
- Oregon Stem Cell Center, Papé Family Pediatric Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Craig Dorrell
- Oregon Stem Cell Center, Papé Family Pediatric Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
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Derr A, Yang C, Zilionis R, Sergushichev A, Blodgett DM, Redick S, Bortell R, Luban J, Harlan DM, Kadener S, Greiner DL, Klein A, Artyomov MN, Garber M. End Sequence Analysis Toolkit (ESAT) expands the extractable information from single-cell RNA-seq data. Genome Res 2016; 26:1397-1410. [PMID: 27470110 PMCID: PMC5052061 DOI: 10.1101/gr.207902.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
RNA-seq protocols that focus on transcript termini are well suited for applications in which template quantity is limiting. Here we show that, when applied to end-sequencing data, analytical methods designed for global RNA-seq produce computational artifacts. To remedy this, we created the End Sequence Analysis Toolkit (ESAT). As a test, we first compared end-sequencing and bulk RNA-seq using RNA from dendritic cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). As predicted by the telescripting model for transcriptional bursts, ESAT detected an LPS-stimulated shift to shorter 3′-isoforms that was not evident by conventional computational methods. Then, droplet-based microfluidics was used to generate 1000 cDNA libraries, each from an individual pancreatic islet cell. ESAT identified nine distinct cell types, three distinct β-cell types, and a complex interplay between hormone secretion and vascularization. ESAT, then, offers a much-needed and generally applicable computational pipeline for either bulk or single-cell RNA end-sequencing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan Derr
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Chaoxing Yang
- Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Rapolas Zilionis
- Department of System Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA; Institute of Biotechnology, Vilnius University, LT 02241 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Alexey Sergushichev
- Computer Technologies Department, ITMO University, Saint Petersburg, 197101, Russia; Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
| | - David M Blodgett
- Department of Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Sambra Redick
- Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Rita Bortell
- Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Jeremy Luban
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - David M Harlan
- Department of Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Sebastian Kadener
- Biological Chemistry Department, Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel
| | - Dale L Greiner
- Program in Molecular Medicine, Diabetes Center of Excellence, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA; Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
| | - Allon Klein
- Department of System Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Maxim N Artyomov
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
| | - Manuel Garber
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA; Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, USA
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Cabrera SM, Henschel AM, Hessner MJ. Innate inflammation in type 1 diabetes. Transl Res 2016; 167:214-27. [PMID: 25980926 PMCID: PMC4626442 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2015.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Revised: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D) is an autoimmune disease often diagnosed in childhood that results in pancreatic β-cell destruction and life-long insulin dependence. T1D susceptibility involves a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors and has historically been attributed to adaptive immunity, although there is now increasing evidence for a role of innate inflammation. Here, we review studies that define a heightened age-dependent innate inflammatory state in T1D families that is paralleled with high fidelity by the T1D-susceptible biobreeding rat. Innate inflammation may be driven by changes in interactions between the host and environment, such as through an altered microbiome, intestinal hyperpermeability, or viral exposures. Special focus is put on the temporal measurement of plasma-induced transcriptional signatures of recent-onset T1D patients and their siblings as well as in the biobreeding rat as it defines the natural history of innate inflammation. These sensitive and comprehensive analyses have also revealed that those who successfully managed T1D risk develop an age-dependent immunoregulatory state, providing a possible mechanism for the juvenile nature of T1D. Therapeutic targeting of innate inflammation has been proven effective in preventing and delaying T1D in rat models. Clinical trials of agents that suppress innate inflammation have had more modest success, but efficacy may be improved by the addition of combinatorial approaches that target other aspects of T1D pathogenesis. An understanding of innate inflammation and mechanisms by which this susceptibility is both potentiated and mitigated offers important insight into T1D progression and avenues for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne M. Cabrera
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes, Children’s Research Institute of Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, and Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Angela M. Henschel
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes, Children’s Research Institute of Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, and Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Martin J. Hessner
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes, Children’s Research Institute of Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, and Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
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King A, Bowe J. Animal models for diabetes: Understanding the pathogenesis and finding new treatments. Biochem Pharmacol 2015; 99:1-10. [PMID: 26432954 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2015.08.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is a lifelong, metabolic disease that is characterised by an inability to maintain normal glucose homeostasis. There are several different forms of diabetes, however the two most common are Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes. Type 1 diabetes is caused by the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells and a subsequent lack of insulin production, whilst Type 2 diabetes is due to a combination of both insulin resistance and an inability of the beta cells to compensate adequately with increased insulin release. Animal models are increasingly being used to elucidate the mechanisms underlying both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes as well as to identify and refine novel treatments. However, a wide range of different animal models are currently in use. The majority of these models are suited to addressing certain specific aspects of diabetes research, but may be of little use in other studies. All have pros and cons, and selecting an appropriate model for addressing a specific question is not always a trivial task and will influence the study results and their interpretation. Thus, as the number of available animal models increases it is important to consider the potential roles of these models in the many different aspects of diabetes research. This review gathers information on the currently used experimental animal models of both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes and evaluates their advantages and disadvantages for research purposes and details the factors that should be taken into account in their use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aileen King
- Diabetes Research Group, Division of Diabetes and Nutritional Sciences, Hodgkin Building 2nd Floor, Guy's Campus, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, United Kingdom.
| | - James Bowe
- Diabetes Research Group, Division of Diabetes and Nutritional Sciences, Hodgkin Building 2nd Floor, Guy's Campus, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, United Kingdom
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Chen YG, Cabrera SM, Jia S, Kaldunski ML, Kramer J, Cheong S, Geoffrey R, Roethle MF, Woodliff JE, Greenbaum CJ, Wang X, Hessner MJ. Molecular signatures differentiate immune states in type 1 diabetic families. Diabetes 2014; 63:3960-73. [PMID: 24760139 PMCID: PMC4207392 DOI: 10.2337/db14-0214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Mechanisms associated with type 1 diabetes (T1D) development remain incompletely defined. Using a sensitive array-based bioassay where patient plasma is used to induce transcriptional responses in healthy leukocytes, we previously reported disease-specific, partially interleukin (IL)-1-dependent signatures associated with preonset and recent onset (RO) T1D relative to unrelated healthy control subjects (uHC). To better understand inherited susceptibility in T1D families, we conducted cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of healthy autoantibody-negative (AA(-)) high HLA-risk siblings (HRS) (DR3 and/or DR4) and AA(-) low HLA-risk siblings (LRS) (non-DR3/non-DR4). Signatures, scored with a novel ontology-based algorithm, and confirmatory studies differentiated the RO T1D, uHC, HRS, and LRS plasma milieus. Relative to uHC, T1D family members exhibited an elevated inflammatory state, consistent with innate receptor ligation that was independent of HLA, AA, or disease status and included elevated plasma IL-1α, IL-12p40, CCL2, CCL3, and CCL4 levels. Longitudinally, signatures of T1D progressors exhibited increasing inflammatory bias. Conversely, HRS possessing decreasing AA titers revealed emergence of an IL-10/transforming growth factor-β-mediated regulatory state that paralleled temporal increases in peripheral activated CD4(+)/CD45RA(-)/FoxP3(high) regulatory T-cell frequencies. In AA(-) HRS, the familial innate inflammatory state also was temporally supplanted by immunoregulatory processes, suggesting a mechanism underlying the decline in T1D susceptibility with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Guang Chen
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes, Children's Research Institute of Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, and Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Susanne M Cabrera
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes, Children's Research Institute of Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, and Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Shuang Jia
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes, Children's Research Institute of Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, and Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Mary L Kaldunski
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes, Children's Research Institute of Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, and Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Joanna Kramer
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes, Children's Research Institute of Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, and Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Sami Cheong
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Rhonda Geoffrey
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes, Children's Research Institute of Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, and Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Mark F Roethle
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes, Children's Research Institute of Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, and Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Jeffrey E Woodliff
- Flow Cytometry and Cell Separation Facility, Bindley Bioscience Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
| | | | - Xujing Wang
- Systems Biology Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
| | - Martin J Hessner
- The Max McGee National Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes, Children's Research Institute of Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, and Department of Pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
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