Building a DNA barcode reference library for the true butterflies (Lepidoptera) of Peninsula Malaysia: what about the subspecies?

Unique among high passes: Phylogenetic inferences from DNA barcoding of the butterfly fauna of Ladakh Trans-Himalaya, India

The butterfly assemblage of Ladakh Trans-Himalaya demands a thorough analysis of their population genetic structure owing to their typical biogeographic affinity and their adaptability to extreme cold-desert climates. No such effort has been taken till date, and in this backdrop, we created a barcode reference library of 60 specimens representing 23 species. Barcodes were generated from freshly collected leg samples using the Sanger sequencing method, followed by phylogenetic clade analyses and divergence calculation. Our data represents 22% of Ladakh's Rhopaloceran fauna with the novel barcode submission for six species, including one Schedule II species, Paralasa mani . Contrary to the 3% threshold rule, the interspecific divergence between two species pairs of typical mountain genus Hyponephele and Karanasa was found to be 2.3% and 2.2%, respectively. The addition of conspecific global barcodes revealed that most species showed little increase in divergence value, while a two-fold increase was noted in a few species. Bayesian clade clustering outcomes largely aligned with current morphological classifications, forming monophyletic clades of conspecific barcodes, with only minor exceptions observed for the taxonomically complicated genus Polyommatus and misidentified records of Aulocera in the database. We also observed variations within the same phylogenetic clades forming nested lineages, which may be attributed to the taxonomic intricacies present at the subspecies level globally, mostly among Eurasian species. Overall, our effort not only substantiated the effectiveness of DNA Barcoding for the identification and conservation of this climatically vulnerable assemblage but also highlighted the significance of deciphering the unique genetic composition among this geographically isolated population of Ladakh butterflies.

DNA Barcoding of Lepidoptera Species from the Maltese Islands: New and Additional Records, with an Insight into Endemic Diversity

This work presents the first outcomes resulting from a DNA barcode reference library of lepidopteran species from Malta. The library presented here was constructed from the specimens collected between 2015 and 2019 and covers the genetic barcodes of 146 species (ca. 25% of lepidopterous Maltese fauna), including four newly recorded Lepidoptera species from the Maltese islands: Apatema baixerasi, Bostra dipectinialis, Oiketicoides lutea, and Phereoeca praecox. The DNA reference barcode library constructed during this study was analyzed in conjunction with publicly available DNA barcodes and used to assess the ability of the local DNA barcodes to discriminate species. Results showed that each species occupies a different BOLD BIN; therefore, DNA barcoding was able to discriminate between the studied species. Our data led to the formation of 12 new BOLD BINs—that is, OTUs that were identified during this work—while nearly 46% of the barcodes generated during this study were never recorded on conspecifics, further indicating the uniqueness of genetic diversity on these central Mediterranean islands. The outcomes of this study highlight the integrative taxonomic approach, where molecular taxonomy plays an important role for biodiversity investigation in its entirety.

Genetic variation in neotropical butterflies is associated with sampling scale, species distributions, and historical forest dynamics

Previous studies of butterfly diversification in the Neotropics have focused on Amazonia and the tropical Andes, while southern regions of the continent have received little attention. To address the gap in knowledge about the Lepidoptera of temperate South America, we analysed over 3000 specimens representing nearly 500 species from Argentina for a segment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene. Representing 42% of the country's butterfly fauna, collections targeted species from the Atlantic and Andean forests, and biodiversity hotspots that were previously connected but are now isolated. We assessed COI effectiveness for species discrimination and identification and how its performance was affected by geographic distances and taxon coverage. COI data also allowed to study patterns of genetic variation across Argentina, particularly between populations in the Atlantic and Andean forests. Our results show that COI discriminates species well, but that identification success is reduced on average by ~20% as spatial and taxonomic coverage rises. We also found that levels of genetic variation are associated with species' spatial distribution type, a pattern which might reflect differences in their dispersal and colonization abilities. In particular, intraspecific distance between populations in the Atlantic and Andean forests was significantly higher in species with disjunct distributions than in those with a continuous range. All splits between lineages in these forests dated to the Pleistocene, but divergence dates varied considerably, suggesting that historical connections between the Atlantic and Andean forests have differentially affected their shared butterfly fauna. Our study supports the fact that large-scale assessments of mitochondrial DNA variation are a powerful tool for evolutionary studies.

Use of species delimitation approaches to tackle the cryptic diversity of an assemblage of high Andean butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea)

Cryptic biological diversity has generated ambiguity in taxonomic and evolutionary studies. Single-locus methods and other approaches for species delimitation are useful for addressing this challenge, enabling the practical processing of large numbers of samples for identification and inventory purposes. This study analyzed an assemblage of high Andean butterflies using DNA barcoding and compared the identifications based on the current morphological taxonomy with three methods of species delimitation (automatic barcode gap discovery, generalized mixed Yule coalescent model, and Poisson tree processes). Sixteen potential cryptic species were recognized using these three methods, representing a net richness increase of 11.3% in the assemblage. A well-studied taxon of the genus Vanessa, which has a wide geographical distribution, appeared with the potential cryptic species that had a higher genetic differentiation at the local level than at the continental level. The analyses were useful for identifying the potential cryptic species in Pedaliodes and Forsterinaria complexes, which also show differentiation along altitudinal and latitudinal gradients. This genetic assessment of an entire assemblage of high Andean butterflies (Papilionoidea) provides baseline information for future research in a region characterized by high rates of endemism and population isolation.

DNA barcodes for Aotearoa New Zealand Pyraloidea (Lepidoptera)

Identification of pyraloid species is often hampered by highly similar external morphology requiring microscopic dissection of genitalia. This becomes especially obvious when mass samples from ecological studies or insect monitoring have to be analysed. DNA barcode sequences could accelerate identification, but are not available for most pyraloid species from New Zealand. Hence, we are presenting a first DNA-barcode library for this group, providing 440 COI barcodes (cytochrome C oxidase I sequences) for 73 morphologically-identified species, which is 29% of Pyraloidea known from New Zealand. Results are analysed using the Barcode Index Number system (BIN) of BOLD and the Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery method (ABGD). Using BIN, the 440 barcodes reveal 82 clusters. A perfect match between BIN assignment and morphological identification was found for 63 species (86.3%). Four species (5.5%) share BINs, each with two species in one BIN, of which Glaucocharis epiphaea and Glaucocharis harmonica even share the same barcode. In contrast, six species (8.2%) split into two or more BINs, with the highest number of five BINs for Orocrambus ramosellus. The interspecific variation of all collected specimens of New Zealand Pyraloidea averages 12.54%. There are deep intraspecific divergences (> 2%) in seven species, for instance Orocrambus vulgaris with up to 6.6% and Scoparia ustimacula with 5.5%. Using ABGD, the 440 barcodes reveal 71 or 88 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), depending on the preferred partition. A perfect match between OTU and morphological identification was found for 56 species (76.7%) or 62 species (84.9%). ABGD delivers four or seven species sharing OTUs and four or ten species split into more than one OTU. Morphological re-examination, as well as the analysis of a concatenated dataset of COI and the nuclear markers EF1α and GADPH for species split into more than one BIN or OTU, do not support a higher number of species. Likewise, there is no evidence for Wolbachia infection as a trigger for these sequence variations.

Butterflies in urban parks in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region, Thailand

Background

For residents of East-Southeast Asia’s megacities, interactions with “nature” may be largely limited to interactions taking place in urban parks. Urban parks provide refuges for ecologically-important biodiversity, such as insect pollinators. While residents may be unlikely to notice small insects, butterflies are more likely to be noticed and to provide positive human-“nature” interactions. Engaging residents and city planners in promoting habitat for butterflies is valid conservation practice and has well-understood educational and well-being benefits. Surveying and monitoring is an essential activity to corroborate, improve and communicate the outcomes of conservation practices amongst city governments, scientists and other stakeholders. Here we present the data from a survey of butterflies in urban parks in the megacity of the Bangkok Metropolitan Region as part of the "Urban biodiversity and human well-being in East-Southeast Asia's megacities" project organised by the "Urban Butterflies in Asia Research Network".

New information

We recorded 51 species of butterflies from ten urban parks in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region. This was more than double the 25 species reported in Bangkok's City Biodiversity Index application. However, this was lower than that recorded in other megacities in Southeast Asia, such as Kuala Lumpur at 60 species. Most of the butterflies recorded were common and widespread species. DNA barcodes are provided for most of the butterflies sampled.

Mitochondrial DNA barcodes provide insight into the phylogeography and subspecies controversy in the widespread Neotropical white peacock butterfly, Anartia jatrophae (Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae)

The validity of subspecies designations in the common and wide-ranging Neotropical white peacock butterfly, Anartia jatrophae, has been debated for decades and remains an unsettled and contentious taxonomic issue among lepidopterists. Originally described by Linnaeus in the mid-18th century from specimens obtained from northern South America (Suriname), subsequent authors proposed a variety of subspecies names based on differences in adult external morphology among geographical populations. Many of these differences, however, were subsequently found to occur seasonally within populations, leading some to conclude that only a single polymorphic species should be recognized. Here, we have analysed both new and publicly available mitochondrial DNA barcodes, obtained from specimens collected from southern USA to northern Argentina, to assess whether they could provide insight into this long-standing controversy. Our molecular analyses, using a combination of character-based (nucleotide composition), population genetic and phylogenetic approaches, indicated the presence of at least four distinct genetic lineages that we suggest are distinct at the subspecies level, namely A. j. jatrophae, A. j. luteipicta, A. j. saturata and A. j. semifusca. Justification for these assignments and the proposed geographical distribution of each subspecies within the Americas are discussed.

Assessment of Genetic Variation in Apis nigrocincta (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in Sulawesi Revealed by Partial Mitochondrial Cytochrome Oxidase I Gene Sequences

Asian cavity-nesting honey bee Apis nigrocincta, a native bee species from Sulawesi and the Philippines, plays a vital role in pollinating flowering plants in local ecosystem and agriculture. In this study, we assessed the intraspecific genetic variation of A. nigrocincta using the sequence of cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI). Molecular phylogenetic analysis showed that there were three main clades in A. nigrocincta specimens from Sulawesi based on their respective locations (North, Central, and South Sulawesi). Genetic distance analysis using the Kimura 2-parameter (K2P) model showed that the intraspecific genetic distance in Sulawesi specimens ranged from 0.000 to 0.055. There are 26 nucleotide polymorphic sites within Sulawesi A. nigrocincta. The variation was dominated by transition T ↔ C. The molecular identification result was supported by morphological identification. The results of the two methods agree that the specimen under study was A. nigrocincta. The result of genetic distance calculation indicated that although the tested specimens were derived from remote locations, the genetic variation was still within the range of intraspecific variation.

Testing the Effectiveness of DNA Barcoding for Biodiversity Assessment of Moths from Nigeria

Comprehensive biodiversity assessment of moths in Nigeria rely greatly on accurate species identification. While most of the Nigerian moths are identified effortlessly using their morphological traits, some taxa are morphologically indistinguishable, which makes it difficult for taxon diagnosis. We investigated the efficiency of the DNA barcode, a fragment of the mitochondrial Cytochrome C oxidase subunit I, as a tool for the identification of Nigerian moths. We barcoded 152 individuals comprising 18 morphospecies collected from one of the remaining and threatened rainforest blocks of Nigeria – the Cross River National Park. Phenetic neighbor-joining tree and phylogenetic Maximum Likelihood approach were employed for the molecular-based species identification. Results showed that DNA barcodes enabled species-level identification of most of the individuals collected from the Park. Additionally, DNA barcoding unraveled the presence of at least six potential new and yet undescribed species—Amnemopsyche sp., Arctia sp., Deinypena sp., Hodebertia sp., Otroeda sp., and Palpita sp. The phylogenetic Maximum Likelihood using the combined dataset of all the newly assembled sequences from Nigeria showed that all species formed unique clades. The phylogenetic analyses provided evidence of population divergence in Euchromia lethe, Nyctemera leuconoe, and Deinypena lacista. This study thus illustrates the efficacy of DNA barcoding for species identification and discovery of potential new species, which demonstrates its relevance in biodiversity documentation of Nigerian moths. Future work should, therefore, extend to the creation of an exhaustive DNA barcode reference library comprising all species of moths from Nigeria to have a comprehensive insight on the diversity of moths in the country. Finally, we propose integrated taxonomic methods that would combine morphological, ecological, and molecular data in the identification and diversity studies of moths in Nigeria.

Genetic Variation and Differentiation of Hylesia metabus (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae): Moths of Public Health Importance in French Guiana and in Venezuela

Hylesia moths impact human health in South America, inducing epidemic outbreaks of lepidopterism, a puriginous dermatitis caused by the urticating properties of females' abdominal setae. The classification of the Hylesia genus is complex, owing to its high diversity in Amazonia, high intraspecific morphological variance, and lack of interspecific diagnostic traits which may hide cryptic species. Outbreaks of Hylesia metabus have been considered responsible for the intense outbreaks of lepidopterism in Venezuela and French Guiana since the C20, however, little is known about genetic variability throughout the species range, which is instrumental for establishing control strategies on H. metabus. Seven microsatellites and mitochondrial gene markers were analyzed from Hylesia moths collected from two major lepidopterism outbreak South American regions. The mitochondrial gene sequences contained significant genetic variation, revealing a single, widespread, polymorphic species with distinct clusters, possibly corresponding to populations evolving in isolation. The microsatellite markers validated the mitochondrial results, and suggest the presence of three populations: one in Venezuela, and two in French Guiana. All moths sampled during outbreak events in French Guiana were assigned to a single coastal population. The causes and implications of this finding require further research.

Barcoding the butterflies of southern South America: Species delimitation efficacy, cryptic diversity and geographic patterns of divergence

Because the tropical regions of America harbor the highest concentration of butterfly species, its fauna has attracted considerable attention. Much less is known about the butterflies of southern South America, particularly Argentina, where over 1,200 species occur. To advance understanding of this fauna, we assembled a DNA barcode reference library for 417 butterfly species of Argentina, focusing on the Atlantic Forest, a biodiversity hotspot. We tested the efficacy of this library for specimen identification, used it to assess the frequency of cryptic species, and examined geographic patterns of genetic variation, making this study the first large-scale genetic assessment of the butterflies of southern South America. The average sequence divergence to the nearest neighbor (i.e. minimum interspecific distance) was 6.91%, ten times larger than the mean distance to the furthest conspecific (0.69%), with a clear barcode gap present in all but four of the species represented by two or more specimens. As a consequence, the DNA barcode library was extremely effective in the discrimination of these species, allowing a correct identification in more than 95% of the cases. Singletons (i.e. species represented by a single sequence) were also distinguishable in the gene trees since they all had unique DNA barcodes, divergent from those of the closest non-conspecific. The clustering algorithms implemented recognized from 416 to 444 barcode clusters, suggesting that the actual diversity of butterflies in Argentina is 3%-9% higher than currently recognized. Furthermore, our survey added three new records of butterflies for the country (Eurema agave, Mithras hannelore, Melanis hillapana). In summary, this study not only supported the utility of DNA barcoding for the identification of the butterfly species of Argentina, but also highlighted several cases of both deep intraspecific and shallow interspecific divergence that should be studied in more detail.

DNA Barcoding of an Assembly of Montane Andean Butterflies (Satyrinae): Geographical Scale and Identification Performance

DNA barcoding is a technique used primarily for the documentation and identification of biological diversity based on mitochondrial DNA sequences. Butterflies have received particular attention in DNA barcoding studies, although varied performance may be obtained due to different scales of geographic sampling and speciation processes in various groups. The montane Andean Satyrinae constitutes a challenging study group for taxonomy. The group displays high richness, with more of 550 species, and remarkable morphological similarity among taxa, which renders their identification difficult. In the present study, we evaluated the effectiveness of DNA barcodes in the identification of montane Andean satyrines and the effect of increased geographical scale of sampling on identification performance. Mitochondrial sequences were obtained from 104 specimens of 39 species and 16 genera, collected in a forest remnant in the northwest Andes. DNA barcoding has proved to be a useful tool for the identification of the specimens, with a well-defined gap and producing clusters with unambiguous identifications for all the morphospecies in the study area. The expansion of the geographical scale with published data increased genetic distances within species and reduced those among species, but did not generally reduce the success of specimen identification. Only in Forsterinaria rustica (Butler, 1868), a taxon with high intraspecific variation, the barcode gap was lost and low support for monophyly was obtained. Likewise, expanded sampling resulted in a substantial increase in the intraspecific distance in Morpho sulkowskyi (Kollar, 1850); Panyapedaliodes drymaea (Hewitson, 1858); Lymanopoda obsoleta (Westwood, 1851); and Lymanopoda labda Hewitson, 1861; but for these species, the barcode gap was maintained. These divergent lineages are nonetheless worth a detailed study of external and genitalic morphology variation, as well as ecological features, in order to determine the potential existence of cryptic species. Even including these cases, DNA barcoding performance in specimen identification was 100% successful based on monophyly, an unexpected result in such a taxonomically complicated group.

Close congruence between Barcode Index Numbers (bins) and species boundaries in the Erebidae (Lepidoptera: Noctuoidea) of the Iberian Peninsula

The DNA barcode reference library for Lepidoptera holds much promise as a tool for taxonomic research and for providing the reliable identifications needed for conservation assessment programs. We gathered sequences for the barcode region of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene from 160 of the 176 nominal species of Erebidae moths (Insecta: Lepidoptera) known from the Iberian Peninsula. These results arise from a research project which constructing a DNA barcode library for the insect species of Spain. New records for 271 specimens (122 species) are coupled with preexisting data for 38 species from the Iberian fauna. Mean interspecific distance was 12.1%, while the mean nearest neighbour divergence was 6.4%. All 160 species possessed diagnostic barcode sequences, but one pair of congeneric taxa (Eublemma rosea and Eublemma rietzi) were assigned to the same BIN. As well, intraspecific sequence divergences higher than 1.5% were detected in four species which likely represent species complexes. This study reinforces the effectiveness of DNA barcoding as a tool for monitoring biodiversity in particular geographical areas and the strong correspondence between sequence clusters delineated by BINs and species recognized through detailed taxonomic analysis.

When COI barcodes deceive: complete genomes reveal introgression in hairstreaks

Two species of hairstreak butterflies from the genus Calycopis are known in the United States: C. cecrops and C. isobeon Analysis of mitochondrial COI barcodes of Calycopis revealed cecrops-like specimens from the eastern US with atypical barcodes that were 2.6% different from either USA species, but similar to Central American Calycopis species. To address the possibility that the specimens with atypical barcodes represent an undescribed cryptic species, we sequenced complete genomes of 27 Calycopis specimens of four species: C. cecrops, C. isobeon, C. quintana and C. bactra Some of these specimens were collected up to 60 years ago and preserved dry in museum collections, but nonetheless produced genomes as complete as fresh samples. Phylogenetic trees reconstructed using the whole mitochondrial and nuclear genomes were incongruent. While USA Calycopis with atypical barcodes grouped with Central American species C. quintana by mitochondria, nuclear genome trees placed them within typical USA C. cecrops in agreement with morphology, suggesting mitochondrial introgression. Nuclear genomes also show introgression, especially between C. cecrops and C. isobeon About 2.3% of each C. cecrops genome has probably (p-value < 0.01, FDR < 0.1) introgressed from C. isobeon and about 3.4% of each C. isobeon genome may have come from C. cecrops. The introgressed regions are enriched in genes encoding transmembrane proteins, mitochondria-targeting proteins and components of the larval cuticle. This study provides the first example of mitochondrial introgression in Lepidoptera supported by complete genome sequencing. Our results caution about relying solely on COI barcodes and mitochondrial DNA for species identification or discovery.

Taxonomic reassessment of species within the chrysaoros group of Calisto (Lepidoptera : Nymphalidae : Satyrinae)

The taxonomic status of the Hispaniolan species of Calisto Hübner, 1823 included in the chrysaoros group is reassessed. Morphological data and COI barcode sequences were analysed through different methods: Neighbour-Joining clustering, ABGD, Median-Joining Haplotype Network, Maximum Likelihood, and Bayesian Inference. Analyses yielded two deeply separated groups or putative species: C. clydoniata and C. chrysaoros. A shallower split was found, except in the Bayesian Inference approach, among populations of southern and northern Hispaniola palaeo-islands. In light of these findings we propose the recognition of two species: C. clydoniata and C. chrysaoros. Within the latter, the populations of the southern and northern Hispaniola palaeo-islands should be recognised as different subspecies: C. chrysaoros chrysaoros Bates and C. chrysaoros galii Schwartz, respectively. Calisto clenchi, syn. nov. is a synonym of C. chrysaoros chrysaoros whereas C. galii galli, syn. nov. and C. galii choneupsilon, syn. nov. are synonyms of C. chrysaoros galii.

Mitochondrial chromosome as a marker of animal migratory routes: DNA barcoding revealed Asian (non-African) origin of a tropical migrant butterfly Junonia orithya in south Israel

The blue pansy Junonia orithya Linnaeus, 1758 (Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae) is widely distributed along the tropical areas of Africa, Asia and Australia. It is also known as a migrant species in the Levant. Here we record Junonia orithya in south Israel and provide a DNA-barcode-based evidence for its Asian (non-African) origin.

Application of DNA barcodes in wildlife conservation in Tropical East Asia

Over the past 50 years, Tropical East Asia has lost more biodiversity than any tropical region. Tropical East Asia is a megadiverse region with an acute taxonomic impediment. DNA barcodes are short standardized DNA sequences used for taxonomic purposes and have the potential to lessen the challenges of biodiversity inventory and assessments in regions where they are most needed. We reviewed DNA barcoding efforts in Tropical East Asia relative to other tropical regions. We suggest DNA barcodes (or metabarcodes from next-generation sequencers) may be especially useful for characterizing and connecting species-level biodiversity units in inventories encompassing taxa lacking formal description (particularly arthropods) and in large-scale, minimal-impact approaches to vertebrate monitoring and population assessments through secondary sources of DNA (invertebrate derived DNA and environmental DNA). We suggest interest and capacity for DNA barcoding are slowly growing in Tropical East Asia, particularly among the younger generation of researchers who can connect with the barcoding analogy and understand the need for new approaches to the conservation challenges being faced.

DNA barcodes and citizen science provoke a diversity reappraisal for the “ring” butterflies of Peninsular Malaysia (Ypthima: Satyrinae: Nymphalidae: Lepidoptera)

The “rings” belonging to the genus Ypthima are amongst the most common butterflies in Peninsular Malaysia. However, the species can be difficult to tell apart, with keys relying on minor and often non-discrete ring characters found on the hindwing. Seven species have been reported from Peninsular Malaysia, but this is thought to be an underestimate of diversity. DNA barcodes of 165 individuals, and wing and genital morphology, were examined to reappraise species diversity of this genus in Peninsular Malaysia. DNA barcodes collected during citizen science projects—School Butterfly Project and Peninsular Malaysia Butterfly Count—recently conducted in Peninsular Malaysia were included. The new DNA barcodes formed six groups with different Barcode Index Numbers (BINs) representing four species reported in Peninsular Malaysia. When combined with public DNA barcodes from the Barcode Of Life Datasystems, several taxonomic issues arose. We consider the taxon Y. newboldi, formerly treated as a subspecies of Y. baldus, as a distinct species. DNA barcodes also supported an earlier suggestion that Y. nebulosa is a synonym under Y. horsfieldii humei. Two BINs of the genus Ypthima comprising DNA barcodes collected during citizen science projects did not correspond to any species previously reported in Peninsular Malaysia.

DNA barcodes for bio-surveillance: regulated and economically important arthropod plant pests

Many of the arthropod species that are important pests of agriculture and forestry are impossible to discriminate morphologically throughout all of their life stages. Some cannot be differentiated at any life stage. Over the past decade, DNA barcoding has gained increasing adoption as a tool to both identify known species and to reveal cryptic taxa. Although there has not been a focused effort to develop a barcode library for them, reference sequences are now available for 77% of the 409 species of arthropods documented on major pest databases. Aside from developing the reference library needed to guide specimen identifications, past barcode studies have revealed that a significant fraction of arthropod pests are a complex of allied taxa. Because of their importance as pests and disease vectors impacting global agriculture and forestry, DNA barcode results on these arthropods have significant implications for quarantine detection, regulation, and management. The current review discusses these implications in light of the presence of cryptic species in plant pests exposed by DNA barcoding.

Diversity and human perceptions of bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) in Southeast Asian megacities

Urbanization requires the conversion of natural land cover to cover with human-constructed elements and is considered a major threat to biodiversity. Bee populations, globally, are under threat; however, the effect of rapid urban expansion in Southeast Asia on bee diversity has not been investigated. Given the pressing issues of bee conservation and urbanization in Southeast Asia, coupled with complex factors surrounding human-bee coexistence, we investigated bee diversity and human perceptions of bees in four megacities. We sampled bees and conducted questionnaires at three different site types in each megacity: a botanical garden, central business district, and peripheral suburban areas. Overall, the mean species richness and abundance of bees were significantly higher in peripheral suburban areas than central business districts; however, there were no significant differences in the mean species richness and abundance between botanical gardens and peripheral suburban areas or botanical gardens and central business districts. Urban residents were unlikely to have seen bees but agreed that bees have a right to exist in their natural environment. Residents who did notice and interact with bees, even though being stung, were more likely to have positive opinions towards the presence of bees in cities.

Can butterflies cope with city life? Butterfly diversity in a young megacity in southern China

During 30 years of unprecedented urbanization, plant diversity in Shenzhen, a young megacity in southern China, has increased dramatically. Although strongly associated with plant diversity, butterfly diversity generally declines with urbanization, but this has not been investigated in Shenzhen. Considering the speed of urbanization in Shenzhen and the large number of city parks, we investigated butterfly diversity in Shenzhen parks. We measured butterfly species richness in four microhabitats (groves, hedges, flowerbeds, and unmanaged areas) across 10 parks and examined the relationship with three park variables: park age, park size, and distance from the central business district. Butterflies were identified based on wing morphology and DNA barcoding. We collected 1933 butterflies belonging to 74 species from six families; 20% of the species were considered rare. Butterfly species richness showed weak negative correlations with park age and distance from the central business district, but the positive correlation with park size was statistically significant (p = 0.001). Among microhabitat types, highest species richness was recorded in unmanaged areas. Our findings are consistent with others in suggesting that to promote urban butterfly diversity it is necessary to make parks as large as possible and to set aside areas for limited management. In comparison to neighbouring cities, Shenzhen parks have high butterfly diversity.

Citizen Science: The First Peninsular Malaysia Butterfly Count

BACKGROUND

Over the past 50 years, Southeast Asia has suffered the greatest losses of biodiversity of any tropical region in the world. Malaysia is a biodiversity hotspot in the heart of Southeast Asia with roughly the same number of mammal species, three times the number of butterfly species, but only 4% of the land area of Australia. Consequently, in Malaysia, there is an urgent need for biodiversity monitoring and also public engagement with wildlife to raise awareness of biodiversity loss. Citizen science is "on the rise" globally and can make valuable contributions to long-term biodiversity monitoring, but perhaps more importantly, involving the general public in science projects can raise public awareness and promote engagement. Butterflies are often the focus of citizen science projects due to their charisma and familiarity and are particularly valuable "ambassadors" of biodiversity conservation for public outreach.

NEW INFORMATION

Here we present the data from our citizen science project, the first "Peninsular Malaysia Butterfly Count". Participants were asked to go outdoors on June 6, 2015, and (non-lethally) sample butterfly legs for species identification through DNA barcoding. Fifty-seven citizens responded to our adverts and registered to take part in the butterfly count with many registering on behalf of groups. Collectively the participants sampled 220 butterfly legs from 26 mostly urban and suburban sampling localities. These included our university campus, a highschool, several public parks and private residences. On the basis of 192 usable DNA barcodes, 43 species were sampled by the participants. The most sampled species was Appias olferna, followed by Junonia orithya and Zizina otis. Twenty-two species were only sampled once, five were only sampled twice, and four were only sampled three times. Three DNA barcodes could not be assigned species names. The sampled butterflies revealed that widely distributed, cosmopolitan species, often those recently arrived to the peninsula or with documented "invasive" potential, dominated the habitat types sampled by the participants. Data from this first Butterfly Count helps establish a baseline from which we can monitor the patterns and changes in butterfly communities in Peninsular Malaysia.

DNA barcoding of Iberian Peninsula and North Africa Tawny Owls Strix aluco suggests the Strait of Gibraltar as an important barrier for phylogeography

Eight subspecies have been proposed within the Tawny Owl (Strix aluco) species. However, recent molecular data have challenged this view, encouraging further work in this species complex. Here we reevaluated the taxonomic status between the North-Western African Tawny Owl, S. a. mauritanica, and its closest Iberian Tawny Owl population (from the S. a. sylvatica to S. a. aluco clade) separated by the Strait of Gibraltar. The Tawny Owl is a non-migratory and territorial species, and juvenile dispersal is restricted to a few kilometers around the natal site. This limited dispersal and the barrier imposed by the Strait of Gibraltar predicted a strong differentiation between the two populations. We tested this using DNA barcoding, Bayesian phylogenetic and species delimitation analysis. We found that an 81.1% of variation is due to the intergroups variation. In addition, the inter-intraspecific distances distribution revealed a barcoding gap among the two subspecies. Also, posterior probabilities and the P_AB value allowed to reject the hypothesis that observed degree of distinctiveness is due to random coalescence processes. These findings clearly support the Strait of Gibraltar as an isolating barrier for this species. The subspecific status is confirmed and species status is even suggested for S. a. mauritanica.