Lupeol is one of active components in the extract of Chrysanthemum indicum Linne that inhibits LMP1-induced NF-κB activation

Insights into intricacies of the Latent Membrane Protein-1 (LMP-1) in EBV-associated cancers

Numerous lymphomas, carcinomas, and other disorders have been associated with Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) infection. EBV's carcinogenic potential can be correlated to latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1), which is essential for fibroblast and primary lymphocyte transformation. LMP1, a transmembrane protein with constitutive activity, belongs to the tumour necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily. LMP1 performs number of role in the life cycle of EBV and the pathogenesis by interfering with, reprogramming, and influencing a vast range of host cellular activities and functions that are getting well-known but still poorly understood. LMP1, pleiotropically perturbs, reprograms and balances a wide range of various processes of cell such as extracellular vesicles, epigenetics, ubiquitin machinery, metabolism, cell proliferation and survival, and also promotes oncogenic transformation, angiogenesis, anchorage-independent cell growth, metastasis and invasion, tumour microenvironment. By the help of various experiments, it is proven that EBV-encoded LMP1 activates multiple cell signalling pathways which affect antigen presentation, cell-cell interactions, chemokine and cytokine production. Therefore, it is assumed that LMP1 may perform majorly in EBV associated malignancies. For the development of novel techniques toward targeted therapeutic applications, it is essential to have a complete understanding of the LMP1 signalling landscape in order to identify potential targets. The focus of this review is on LMP1-interacting proteins and related signalling processes. We further discuss tactics for using the LMP1 protein as a potential therapeutic for cancers caused by the EBV.

Network pharmacology analysis to explore mechanism of three flower tea against nonalcoholic fatty liver disease with experimental support using high-fat diet-induced rats

Objective

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has become a common chronic liver disease that is harmful to human health. Moreover, there is currently no FDA-approved first-line drug for the treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) or NAFLD. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is widely used to ameliorate liver diseases, such as the traditional ancient recipe called Three Flower Tea (TFT), which consists of double rose (Rosa rugosa), white chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium), and Daidaihua (Citrus aurantium). However, the mechanisms of the action of TFT are not clear. Therefore, this study aimed to elucidate the mechanisms of TFT against NAFLD in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced rats.

Methods

This study utilized bioinformatics and network pharmacology to establish the active and potential ingredient-target networks of TFT. Furthermore, a protein–protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed, and enrichment analysis was performed to determine the key targets of TFT against NAFLD. Furthermore, an animal experiment was conducted to evaluate the therapeutic effect and confirm the key targets of TFT against NAFLD.

Results

A total of 576 NAFLD-related genes were searched in GeneCards, and under the screening criteria of oral bioavailability (OB) ≥30% and drug-likeness (DL) ≥0.18, a total of 19 active ingredients and 210 targets were identified in TFT. Network pharmacology analysis suggested that 55 matching targets in PPIs were closely associated with roles for NAFLD treatment. Through the evaluation of network topology parameters, four key central genes, PPARγ, SREBP, AKT, and RELA, were identified. Furthermore, animal experiments indicated that TFT could reduce plasma lipid profiles, hepatic lipid profiles and hepatic fat accumulation, improve liver function, suppress inflammatory factors, and reduce oxidative stress. Through immunoblotting and immunofluorescence analysis, PPARγ, SREBP, AKT, and RELA were confirmed as targets of TFT in HFD-induced rats.

Conclusion

In summary, our results indicate that TFT can prevent and treat NAFLD via multiple targets, including lipid accumulation, antioxidation, insulin sensitivity, and inflammation.

Immunomodulatory properties of triterpenes

The immune system is one of the main defence mechanisms of the human body. Inadequacy of this system or immunodeficiency results in increased risk of infections and tumours, whereas over-activation of the immune system causes allergic or autoimmune disorders. A well-balanced immune system is important for protection and for alleviation of these diseases. There is a growing interest to maintain a well-balanced immune system, especially after the Covid-19 pandemic. Many biological extracts, as well as natural products, have become popular due to their wide array of immunomodulatory effects and influence on the immune system. Triterpenes, one of the secondary metabolite groups of medicinal plants, exhibit immunomodulatory properties by various mechanisms. Different triterpenes, including components of commonly consumed plants, can promote some protection and alleviation of disease symptoms linked with immune responses and thus enhance overall well-being. This review aims to highlight the efficacy of triterpenes in light of the available literature evidence regarding the immunomodulatory properties of triterpenes. We have reviewed widely investigated immunomodulatory triterpenes; oleanolic acid, glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhetinic acid, pristimerin, ursolic acid, boswellic acid, celastrol, lupeol, betulin, betulinic acid, ganoderic acid, cucumarioside, and astragalosides which have important immunoregulatory properties. In spite of many preclinical and clinical trials were conducted on triterpenes related to their immunoregulatory actions, current studies have several limitations. Therefore, especially more clinical studies with optimal design is essential.

Lupeol-induced nitric oxide elicits apoptosis-like death within Escherichia coli in a DNA fragmentation-independent manner

Lupeol is known to be plentiful in fruits or plant barks and has an antimicrobial effect, however, its mode of action(s) has yet to be determined. To elucidate lupeol generates nitric oxide (NO), which is recognized for possessing an antimicrobial activity, intracellular NO was measured in Escherichia coli using DAF-FM. Using the properties of NO passing through plasma membrane easily, increased malondialdehyde levels have shown that lupeol causes lipid peroxidation, and the resulting membrane depolarization was confirmed by DiBAC4(3). These data indicated that lupeol-induced NO is related to the destruction of bacterial membrane. Further study was performed to examine whether NO, known as a cell proliferation inhibitor, affects bacterial cell division. As a result, DAPI staining verified that lupeol promotes cell division arrest, and followed by early apoptosis is observed in Annexin V/PI double staining. Even though these apoptotic hallmarks appeared, the endonuclease failed to perform properly with supporting data of decreased intracellular Mg2+ and Ca2+ levels without DNA fragmentation, which is confirmed using a TUNEL assay. These findings indicated that lupeol-induced NO occurs DNA fragmentation-independent bacterial apoptosis-like death (ALD). Additionally, lupeol triggers DNA filamentation and morphological changes in response to DNA repair system called SOS system. In accordance with the fact that ALD deems to SOS response, and that the RecA is considered as a caspase-like protein, increase in caspase-like protein activation occurred in E. coli wild-type, and no ΔRecA mutant. In conclusion, these results demonstrated that the antibacterial mode of action(s) of lupeol is an ALD while generating NO.

SARS-CoV-2 Nonstructural Proteins 1 and 13 Suppress Caspase-1 and the NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation

Viral infection-induced activation of inflammasome complexes has both positive and negative effects on the host. Proper activation of inflammasome complexes induces down-stream effector mechanisms that inhibit viral replication and promote viral clearance, whereas dysregulated activation has detrimental effects on the host. Coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, encode viroporins that activate the NLRP3 inflammasome, and the severity of coronavirus disease is associated with the inflammasome activation. Although the NLRP3 inflammasome activation is implicated in the pathogenesis of coronaviruses, these viruses must evade inflammasome-mediated antiviral immune responses to establish primary replication. Screening of a complementary DNA (cDNA) library encoding 28 SARS-CoV-2 open reading frames (ORFs) showed that two nonstructural proteins (NSPs), NSP1 and NSP13, inhibited caspase-1-mediated IL-1β activation. NSP1 amino acid residues involved in host translation shutoff and NSP13 domains responsible for helicase activity were associated with caspase-1 inhibition. In THP-1 cells, both NSP1 and NSP13 significantly reduced NLRP3-inflammasome-induced caspase-1 activity and IL-1β secretion. These findings indicate that SARS-CoV-2 NSP1 and NSP13 are potent antagonists of the NLRP3 inflammasome.

Chrysanthemum indicum L.: A Comprehensive Review of its Botany, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology

Chrysanthemum indicum L. (C. indicum L.), a member of the Compositae family, is a perennial plant that has been used as a traditional medicine for more than 2000 years in China and is widely used for the treatment of Pemphigus, swelling, pain, and scrofula. To date, more than 190 chemical constituents have been isolated and identified from this plant, including flavonoids, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, and phenolic acids. Numerous modern studies have shown that extracts or monomeric compounds from C. indicum L. have several pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory anti-oxidation, antipathogenic microorganism, anticancer, immune regulation, and hepatoprotective effects. However, resource availability, the research on the mechanism, and quality control are still insufficient, which deserves further efforts. In this paper, the advances in botany, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of C. indicum L were reviewed. We hope that this review can provide important information for traditional Chinese medicine, phytochemistry, synthetic and medicinal chemistry researchers for making full use of C. indicum L. resource.

Ethyl Acetate Fraction of Adenophora triphylla var. japonica Inhibits Migration of Lewis Lung Carcinoma Cells by Suppressing Macrophage Polarization toward an M2 Phenotype

Objectives

It is reported that tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) contribute to cancer progression by promoting tumor growth and metastasis. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of different fractions of Adenophora triphylla var. japonica (AT) on the polarization of macrophages into the M2 phenotype, a major phenotype of TAMs.

Methods

We isolated hexane, ethyl acetate, and butanol fractions from crude ethanol extract of AT. The cytotoxicity of AT in RAW264.7 cells was examined by 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. RAW264.7 cells were polarized into the M2 phenotype by treatment with interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13. The expression of M2 macrophage marker genes was detected by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The phosphorylation level of signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6) was investigated by western blot analysis. The migration of Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cells was examined by transwell migration assay using conditioned media (CM) collected from RAW264.7 cells as a chemoattractant.

Results

Among various fractions of AT, the ethyl acetate fraction of AT (EAT) showed the most significant suppressive effect on the mRNA expression of M2 macrophage markers, including arginase-1, interleukin (IL)-10 and mannose receptor C type 1 (MRC-1), up-regulated by treatment of IL-4 and IL-13. In addition, EAT suppressed the phosphorylation of STAT6, a critical regulator of IL-4 and IL-13-induced M2 macrophage polarization. Finally, the increased migration of Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cells by CM from M2-polarized RAW264.7 cells was reduced by CM from RAW264.7 cells co-treated with EAT and M2 polarization inducers.

Conclusion

We demonstrated that EAT attenuated cancer cell migration through suppression of macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype. Additional preclinical or clinical researches are needed to evaluate its regulatory effects on macrophage polarization and anti-cancer activities.

Evaluation of Anti-HIV-1 Integrase and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Compounds from Betula alnoides Buch-Ham

Betula alnoides is a medicinal plant in Thai traditional longevity preparations. The crude extracts of this plant possess various biological activities. However, the isolated compounds from this plant have no reports of anti-HIV-1 integrase (IN) activity. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the anti-HIV-1 integrase and anti-inflammatory effects of isolated compounds from this plant and predict the interaction of compounds with integrase active sites. From the bioassay-guided fractionation of the ethanol extract of B. alnoides stems using chromatographic techniques, five pentacyclic triterpenoid compounds were obtained. They are betulinic acid (1), betulin (2), lupeol (3), oleanolic acid (4), and ursolic acid (5). Compound 2 exhibited the most potent inhibitory activity against HIV-1 IN, with an IC₅₀ value of 17.7 μM. Potential interactions of compounds with IN active sites were investigated using computational docking. The results indicated that active compounds interacted with Asp64, a residue participating in 3′-processing, and Thr66, His67, and Lys159, residues participating in strand-transfer reactions of the integration process. Regarding anti-inflammatory activity, all compounds exerted significant inhibitory effects on LPS-induced nitric oxide production (IC₅₀ < 68.7 μM). Thus, this research provides additional scientific support for the use of B. alnoides in traditional medicine for the treatment of HIV patients.

The Epstein-Barr virus LMP1 interactome: biological implications and therapeutic targets

The oncogenic potential of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is mostly attributed to latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1), which is essential and sufficient for transformation of fibroblast and primary lymphocytes. LMP1 expression results in the activation of multiple signaling cascades like NF-ΚB and MAP kinases that trigger cell survival and proliferative pathways. LMP1 specific signaling events are mediated through the recruitment of a number of interacting proteins to various signaling domains. Based on these properties, LMP1 is an attractive target to develop effective therapeutics to treat EBV-related malignancies. In this review, we focus on LMP1 interacting proteins, associated signaling events, and potential targets that could be exploited for therapeutic strategies.

Human Cytomegalovirus IE2 86 kDa Protein Induces STING Degradation and Inhibits cGAMP-Mediated IFN-β Induction

Stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is a critical signaling molecule in the innate immune response against DNA viruses by either directly sensing intracellular DNA or functioning as an adaptor molecule to activate the type I interferon (IFN) signaling pathway. We determined the functional interaction between STING and human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). A cDNA library containing 133 HCMV ORFs was screened to identify viral genes that inhibit STING-induced IFN-β promoter activation. Among the screened ORFs, UL122, which encodes the immediate-early 2 86 kDa (IE86) protein, strongly abolished STING-induced IFN-β promoter activation. Interestingly, IE86 protein facilitated the proteasome-dependent degradation of STING and inhibited 2′3′-cGAMP-mediated induction of IFNB1 and CXCL10. Taken together, this study demonstrates the existence of a post-translational regulation of STING by HCMV IE86 protein.

Inhibition of human cytomegalovirus immediate-early gene expression and replication by the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) fraction of Elaeocarpus sylvestris in vitro

Background

In immunocompromised patients, human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection can lead to severe, life-threatening diseases, such as pneumonitis, hepatitis, gastrointestinal tract disease, and retinitis. We previously reported that a 70% ethanol extract of Elaeocarpus sylvestris leaves (ESE) inhibits human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) replication in vitro. In the present study, we determined the solvent fraction of ESE that inhibits HCMV replication using activity-guided fractionation.

Methods

Activity-guided fractionation of ESE was performed to determine the solvent fraction that inhibits HCMV replication. Effects of solvent fractions on HCMV lytic gene expression and major immediate-early (MIE) enhancer/promoter activity were further investigated.

Results

Among the solvent fractions tested, the EtOAc fraction of ESE markedly reduced HCMV lytic gene expression and viral replication in vitro without exerting significant cytotoxic effects against human foreskin fibroblasts (HFF). Furthermore, the EtOAc fraction negatively affected HCMV MIE enhancer/promoter activity.

Conclusion

Our data collectively indicate that the EtOAc fraction of ESE contains active constituents that inhibit HCMV MIE enhancer/promoter activity and viral replication. The EtOAc fraction of ESE is a good source of novel drug candidates for treatment of HCMV-associated diseases.

Ester alkaloids from Cephalotaxus interfere with the 2'3'-cGAMP-induced type I interferon pathway in vitro

Dysregulated activation of the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING) pathway by self-DNA contributes to interferonopathy and promotes autoimmune diseases. To identify potential suppressors of STING-induced type I interferon (IFN) induction, ethanol extracts of medicinal plants were screened for inhibitory activity against IFN-ß promoter activation. Notably, 70% ethanol extract of Cephalotaxus koreana specifically down-regulated STING-induced, but not TBK1- or IRF3-induced, IFN-ß promoter activity. The compounds exerting inhibitory activity specifically against STING-mediated IFN-ß promoter activation were identified as ester alkaloids isolated from the genus, Cephalotaxus, homoharringtonine and harringtonine. Furthermore, these two compounds inhibited 2’3’-cGAMP-induced IFN-stimulated gene expression and interaction between STING and TBK1. These suppressive effects were not observed with cephalotaxine devoid of the ester side-chain. Our data support the potential utility of homoharringtonine and harringtonine to treat STING-associated interferonopathy and autoimmune diseases.

1,2,3,4,6-Penta-O-galloyl-ß-D-glucose, a bioactive compound in Elaeocarpus sylvestris extract, inhibits varicella-zoster virus replication

The aim of this study was to establish the effect of a 70% ethanol extract of Elaeocarpus sylvestris (ESE) on varicella-zoster virus (VZV) replication and identify the specific bioactive component(s) underlying its activity. ESE induced a significant reduction in replication of the clinical strain of VZV. Activity-guided fractionation indicated that the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) fraction of ESE contains the active compound(s) inhibiting VZV replication. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled to Electrospray Ionization Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS) analysis of the EtOAc fraction of ESE facilitated the identification of 13 chemical components. Among these, 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-ß-D-glucose (PGG) markedly suppressed VZV-induced c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation, expression of viral immediate-early 62 (IE62) protein and VZV replication. Our results collectively support the utility of PGG as a potential candidate anti-viral drug to treat VZV-associated diseases.

The Protective Effect of Chrysanthemum indicum Extract against Ankylosing Spondylitis in Mouse Models

In traditional Chinese and Korean homeopathic medicine, Chrysanthemum indicum Linné (Asteraceae) is a time-honored herb, prescribed for the resolution of symptoms associated with inflammatory and hypertensive conditions as well as those affecting the lungs and its associated structures. The goal of this work is to investigate the defensive role of Chrysanthemum indicum extract in fighting ankylosing spondylitis (AS) using mouse models, through which the manifestation and extent of the disease progression were measured with quantitative analysis of the intervertebral joints. Markers of inflammation as well as oxidative stress were also analysed. Western blot was used to quantify the levels of Nuclear Factor-κB (NF-κB) p65, Dickkopf-1 (DKK-1), and sclerostin (SOST). Consequently, the findings of this experiment demonstrated that AS in mice that were given Chrysanthemum indicum extract had lower level of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 (P < 0.05) and increased level of catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) (P < 0.05). The results also revealed that Chrysanthemum indicum supplemented with diet contributed to a decrease in Nuclear Factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 protein expression (P < 0.05) and higher levels of DKK-1 and SOST proteins (P < 0.05). Therefore, we concluded that the beneficial role of Chrysanthemum indicum in AS is manifested through downregulating oxidative stress, inhibiting inflammatory mediators and NF-κB, and increasing DKK-1 and SOST levels.

Antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory properties of diindolylmethane and lupeol against N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine induced bladder carcinogenesis in experimental rats

INTRODUCTION

Chemoprevention may involve perturbation of a variety of steps in tumor initiation, promotion, and progression.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory potential effects of diindolylmethane (DIM) and lupeol on experimental bladder carcinogenesis.

METHODS

Sixty healthy male Wistar rats were selected and randomly divided into six groups, with 10 rats in each group. Group I: control; group II: N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine (BBN; 150 mg/gavage/twice a week) for 8 weeks, and then they were given 100 ppm concentrations of dimethylarsenic acid (DMA) in the drinking water for 28 weeks; group III: BBN + DMA + DIM (5 mg/kg body weight (b.w.)/day) treatment was started after BBN treatment, and it was orally administered for 28 weeks); group IV: BBN + DMA + lupeol (50 mg/kg b.w./day) treatment was started after BBN treatment, and it was orally administered for 28 weeks); and groups V and VI: DIM and lupeol treatment alone for 36 weeks. Bladder tissues were collected after 36th week study protocol for further analysis.

RESULTS

Our results revealed that DIM and lupeol treatment showed inhibition of tumor growth in the bladder by histopathological confirmations as well as significantly (p < 0.001) increased the expression of phosphotensin (PTEN) and significantly (p < 0.001) decreased the expression of tumor necrosis factor α, nuclear factor κβ (p65) were quantified using Western blot analysis. DIM and lupeol treatment significantly (p < 0.001) decreased the levels of Cox-2 in bladder tissue samples and NMP 22 in urine samples were quantified using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method.

CONCLUSION

Preventive DIM and lupeol administration act as potent Cox-2 inhibitors, which activates the tumor suppressor protein PTEN against experimental bladder carcinogenesis by antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory properties.

Effects of Lupenone, Lupeol, and Taraxerol Derived from Adenophora triphylla on the Gene Expression and Production of Airway MUC5AC Mucin

Background

Adenophora triphylla var. japonica is empirically used for controlling airway inflammatory diseases in folk medicine. We evaluated the gene expression and production of mucin from airway epithelial cells in response to lupenone, lupeol and taraxerol derived from Adenophora triphylla var. japonica.

Methods

Confluent NCI-H292 cells were pretreated with lupenone, lupeol or taraxerol for 30 minutes and then stimulated with tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) for 24 hours. The MUC5AC mucin gene expression and production were measured by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. Additionally, we examined whether lupenone, lupeol or taraxerol affects MUC5AC mucin production induced by epidermal growth factor (EGF) and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), the other 2 stimulators of airway mucin production.

Results

Lupenone, lupeol, and taraxerol inhibited the gene expression and production of MUC5AC mucin induced by TNF-α from NCI-H292 cells, respectively. The 3 compounds inhibited the EGF or PMA-induced production of MUC5AC mucin in NCI-H292 cells.

Conclusion

These results indicated that lupenone, lupeol and taraxerol derived from Adenophora triphylla var. japonica regulates the production and gene expression of mucin, by directly acting on airway epithelial cells. In addition, the results partly explain the mechanism of of Adenophora triphylla var. japonica as a traditional remedy for diverse inflammatory pulmonary diseases.