Overexpression of LIM and SH3 Protein 1 leading to accelerated G2/M phase transition contributes to enhanced tumourigenesis in oral cancer

AR-V7 expression facilitates accelerated G2/M phase transition in castration-resistant prostate cancer

The emergence of AR-V7, a truncated isoform of AR upon androgen deprivation therapy treatment, leads to the development of castration resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Understanding mechanisms that regulate AR-V7 expression is critical for developing newer therapeutic strategies. In this study, we have investigated the regulation of AR-V7 during cell cycle and identified a distinct pattern of periodic fluctuation, peaking during G2/M phase. This fluctuation correlates with the expression of Cdc-2 like kinase 1 (CLK1) and phosphorylated serine/arginine-rich splicing factor 1 (p-SRSF1) during these phases, pointing towards their role in AR-V7 generation. Functional assays reveal that CLK1 knockdown prolongs the S phase, leading to altered cell cycle distribution and increased accumulation of AR-V7 and pSRSF1 in G1/S phase. Conversely, CLK1 overexpression rescues AR-V7 and p-SRSF1 levels in the G2/M phase, consistent with observed cell cycle alterations upon AR-V7 knockdown and overexpression in CRPC cells. Furthermore, overexpression of kinase-deficient CLK1 mutant leads to diminished AR-V7 levels during G2/M, underlining the essential contribution of CLK1's kinase activity in modulating AR-V7 expression. Collectively, our findings, for the first time, show periodic regulation of AR-V7 expression, its effect on cell cycle progression and the critical role of CLK1-pSRSF1 axis in modulating AR-V7 expression throughout the cell cycle.

Role of non-coding RNAs and exosomal non-coding RNAs in retinoblastoma progression

Retinoblastoma (RB) is a rare aggressive intraocular malignancy of childhood that has the potential to affect vision, and can even be fatal in some children. While the tumor can be controlled efficiently at early stages, metastatic tumors lead to high mortality. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are implicated in a number of physiological cellular process, including differentiation, proliferation, migration, and invasion, The deregulation of ncRNAs is correlated with several diseases, particularly cancer. ncRNAs are categorized into two main groups based on their length, i.e. short and long ncRNAs. Moreover, ncRNA deregulation has been demonstrated to play a role in the pathogenesis and development of RB. Several ncRNAs, such as miR-491-3p, miR-613,and SUSD2 have been found to act as tumor suppressor genes in RB, but other ncRNAs, such as circ-E2F3, NEAT1, and TUG1 act as tumor promoter genes. Understanding the regulatory mechanisms of ncRNAs can provide new opportunities for RB therapy. In the present review, we discuss the functional roles of the most important ncRNAs in RB, their interaction with the genes responsible for RB initiation and progression, and possible future clinical applications as diagnostic and prognostic tools or as therapeutic targets.

Lasp1 Expression Is Implicated in Embryonic Development of Zebrafish

The LIM and SH3 domain protein 1 (LASP1) was originally identified in metastatic breast cancer and mainly characterized as a cytoskeleton protein overexpressed in various cancer types. At present, little is known about LASP1 expression in physiological conditions, and its function during embryonic development has not been elucidated. Here, we focused on Lasp1 and embryonic development, choosing zebrafish as a vertebrate model. For the first time, we identified and determined the expression of Lasp1 protein at various stages of development, at 48 and 72 h post-fertilization (hpf), at 6 days pf and in different organs of zebrafish adults by Western blotting, 3D light-sheet microscopy and fluorescent immunohistochemistry. Further, we showed that specific lasp1 morpholino (MO) led to (i) abnormal morphants with alterations in several organs, (ii) effective knockdown of endogenous Lasp1 protein and (iii) an increase in lasp1 mRNA, as detected by ddPCR. The co-injection of lasp1 mRNA with lasp1 MO partially rescued morphant phenotypes, thus confirming the specificity of the MO oligonucleotide-induced defects. We also detected an increase in apoptosis following lasp1 MO treatment. Our results suggest a significant role for Lasp1 in embryonic development, highlighting zebrafish as a vertebrate model suitable for studying Lasp1 function in developmental biology and organogenesis.

Circular RNA-related CeRNA network and prognostic signature for patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma

Background: Circular RNA (circRNA) has an important influence on oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) progression as competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs). However, the link between ceRNAs and the OSCC immune microenvironment is unknown. The research aimed to find circRNAs implicated in OSCC carcinogenesis and progression and build a circRNA-based ceRNA network to create a reliable OSCC risk prediction model. Methods: The expression profiles of circRNA in OSCC tumors and normal tissues were assessed through RNA sequencing. From the TCGA database, clinicopathological data and expression patterns of microRNAs (miRNAs) and mRNAs were obtained. A network of circRNA-miRNA-mRNA ceRNA was prepared according to these differentially expressed RNAs and was analyzed through functional enrichment. Subsequently, based on the mRNA in the ceRNA network, the influence of the model on prognosis was then evaluated using a risk prediction model. Finally, considering survival, tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TICs), clinicopathological features, immunosuppressive molecules, and chemotherapy efficacy were analyzed. Results: Eleven differentially expressed circRNAs were found in cancer tissues relative to healthy tissues. We established a network of circRNA-miRNA-mRNA ceRNA, and the ceRNA network includes 123 mRNAs, six miRNAs, and four circRNAs. By the assessment of Genomes pathway and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes, it is found that in the cellular senescence, PI3K-AKT and mTOR signaling pathway mRNAs were mainly enrichment. An immune-related signature was created utilizing seven immune-related genes in the ceRNA network after univariate and multivariate analysis. The receiver operating characteristic of the nomogram exhibited satisfactory accuracy and predictive potential. According to a Kaplan-Meier analysis, the high-risk group's survival rate was signally lower than the group with low-risk. In addition, risk models were linked to clinicopathological characteristics, TICs, immune checkpoints, and antitumor drug susceptibility. Conclusion: The profiles of circRNAs expression of OSCC tissues differ significantly from normal tissues. Our study established a circRNA-associated ceRNA network associated with OSCC and identified essential prognostic genes. Furthermore, our proposed immune-based signature aims to help research OSCC etiology, prognostic marker screening, and immune response evaluation.

LIM and SH3 protein 1 (LASP1) differentiates malignant chordomas from less malignant chondrosarcomas

PURPOSE

Chordomas are malignant tumors that develop along the neuraxis between skull-base and sacrum. Chondrosarcomas show similarities with chordomas, yet show less malignant behavior. LIM and SH3 protein 1 (LASP1) is a cytoskeletal protein known to promote the malignant behavior of tumors. LASP1 was previously identified as a possibly overexpressed protein in a chordoma proteomics experiment. In this study we compare LASP1 expression in chordoma and chondrosarcoma tissue.

METHODS

Biopsies of primary tumors were collected from surgically treated chordoma (n = 6) and chondrosarcoma (n = 6) patients, flash-frozen upon collection and collectively analyzed for LASP1 RNA (real-time PCR) and protein expression (western blotting). Additionally, tissue micro array (TMA)-based immunohistochemistry was applied to an archive of 31 chordoma and 1 chondrosarcoma specimen.

RESULTS

In chordoma samples, LASP1 mRNA was detected in 4/6 cases and a strong 36 kDa immunoreactive protein band was observed in 4/5 cases. In contrast, 0/6 chondrosarcoma samples showed detectable levels of LASP1 mRNA and only a weak 36 kDa band was observed in 4/5 cases. Immunohistochemical analysis showed LASP1 expression in all chordoma samples, whereas chondrosarcoma specimen did not show immunoreactivity.

CONCLUSION

LASP1 is strongly expressed in the majority of chordoma cases and shows low expression in chondrosarcoma tissue. Since LASP1 is known to function as oncogene and regulate cell proliferation in other tumor types, this study implicates a role for LASP1 in chordoma biology. Further studies are warranted to improve understanding of LASP1's expression and functioning within chordoma, both in vitro and in vivo.

LASP-1 interacts with ErbB2 in ovarian cancer cells

LASP-1 was identified as a protein following mass spectrometric analysis of phosphoproteins consequent to signaling by ErbB2 in SKOV-3 cells. It has been previously identified as an oncogene and is located on chromosomal arm 17q 0.76Mb centromeric to ErbB2. It is expressed in serous ovarian cancer cell lines as a 40kDa protein. In SKOV-3 cells, it was phosphorylated and was inhibited by Lapatinib and CP7274714. LASP-1 co-immunoprecipitated with ErbB2 in SKOV-3 cells, suggesting a direct interaction. This interaction and phosphorylation were independent of the kinase activity of ErbB2. Moreover, the binding of LASP-1 to ErbB2 was independent of the  tyrosine phosphorylation of LASP-1. LASP-1 was neither expressed on the surface epithelium of the normal ovary nor in the fallopian tube. It was expressed in 28% of ovarian tumours (n=101) that did not significantly correlate with other clinical factors. In tumours from patients with invasive ductal carcinoma of the breast who had ErbB2 amplification (3+), LASP-1 was expressed in 3/20 (p <0.001). Analysis of the expression of an independent dataset of ovarian and breast tumors from TCGA showed the significant co-occurrence of ErbB2 and LASP-1 (p<0.01). These results suggest that LASP-1 and ErbB2 interaction could be important in the pathogenesis of ovarian cancer.

Flavopereirine Suppresses the Progression of Human Oral Cancer by Inhibiting the JAK-STAT Signaling Pathway via Targeting LASP1

Objective

Flavopereirine has been identified to be a potential anti-cancer agent in several types of human cancer. This study aimed to investigate the anti-cancer activity of flavopereirine in oral cancer.

Methods

The effect of flavopereirine on cell viability of human oral cancer cell lines (BcaCD885 and Tca8113) was evaluated by MTT assay and colony formation assay. Cell apoptosis and cell cycle distribution were detected by flow cytometry. Cell invasion and migration were evaluated by Transwell assay. The expression of LASP1, JAK2, p-JAK2, STST3, p-STST3, STST5 and p-STST5 was evaluated by qRT-PCR and Western blot. In addition, the xenograft mouse model was constructed to determine the anti-cancer role of flavopereirine in vivo.

Results

Flavopereirine significantly inhibited cell proliferation, invasion, migration and EMT process of BcaCD885 and Tca8113 cells, while promoted cell apoptosis in vitro. Flavopereirine markedly decreased the expression levels of p-JAK2, p-STST3 and p-STST5, while increased the expression levels of LASP1. In addition, downregulation of LASP1 significantly increased the expression levels of p-JAK2, p-STAT3 and p-STAT5 compared with si-NC in BcaCD885 cells. Moreover, flavopereirine was found to decrease tumor weight and volume of xenograft tumors in vivo.

Conclusion

Flavopereirine inhibited the progression of oral cancer through inactivating the JAK/STAT signaling pathway by upregulating LASP1, suggesting that flavopereirine might be a potential anti-cancer agent for oral cancer.

p21-activated kinase 4 promotes the progression of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma by targeting LASP1

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is one of the most common malignant tumors of the digestive tract in humans. Several studies have indicated that PAK4 is associated with the risk of ESCC and may be a potential druggable kinase for ESCC treatment. However, the underlying mechanism remains largely unknown. The aim of our study is to identify the functional role of PAK4 in ESCC. To determine the expression of PAK4 in ESCC, Western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry were performed, and the results showed that PAK4 is significantly upregulated in ESCC tissues and cell lines compared with normal controls and normal esophageal epithelial cell line. To further investigate the role of PAK4 in ESCC, cell viability assays, anchorage-independent cell growth assays, wound healing assays, cellular invasion assays, in vivo xenograft mouse models, and metastasis assays were conducted, and the results showed that PAK4 can significantly facilitate ESCC proliferation and metastasis in vitro and in vivo. To determine the potential target of PAK4 in ESCC progression, a pull-down assay was performed, and the results showed that LASP1 may be a potential target of PAK4. An immunoprecipitation assay and confocal microscopy analysis confirmed that PAK4 can bind to and colocalize with LASP1 in vitro and in cells. Notably, rescue experiments further illustrated the mechanistic network of PAK4/LASP1. Our research reveals the oncogenic roles of PAK4 in ESCC and preliminarily elucidates the mechanistic network of PAK4/LASP1 in ESCC.

LncRNA NEAT1 Knockdown Inhibits Retinoblastoma Progression by miR-3619-5p/LASP1 Axis

Retinoblastoma (RB) is the most common intraocular tumor in childhood. Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript 1 (NTAT1) has been reported to be related to RB progression. This study aims to study the molecular mechanism of NEAT1 in regulating cell cycle, proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and invasion in RB. The expression levels of NEAT1 and miR-3619-5p were detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The protein expression of LIM and SH3 domain protein 1 (LASP1) was measured by western blot. The proliferation of RB cells was analyzed by cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) and cell colony formation assays. Cell migration and invasion were evaluated by transwell assay. Cell cycle and apoptosis were assessed by flow cytometry analysis. The association between miR-3619-5p and NEAT1 or LASP1 was predicted by starBase 3.0 database and identified by dual-luciferase reporter assay. The effects of NEAT1 knockdown on the tumor growth in vivo were detected by in vivo tumor formation assay. NEAT1 expression was dramatically up-regulated, and miR-3619-5p expression was obviously downregulated in RB tissues and cells compared with control groups. The protein level of LASP1 was obviously increased in RB tissues or cells relative to paracancerous normal tissues or cells, respectively. Functionally, NEAT1 silencing inhibited RB cell migration, invasion, and proliferation, whereas induced cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in RB; this phenomenon was partially abolished by miR-3619-5p inhibitor. Mechanistically, NEAT1 acted as a sponge of miR-3619-5p, and miR-3619-5p was associated with LASP1. In addition, NEAT1 knockdown decreased the volume and weight of RB tumor in vivo. Together, NEAT1 silencing repressed cell migration, invasion, and proliferation, whereas induced cell apoptosis and cycle arrest by sponging miR-3619-5p to inhibit LASP1 expression in RB cells. This study may provide a theoretical basis for RB therapy.

Centromere Protein N Participates in Cellular Proliferation of Human Oral Cancer by Cell-Cycle Enhancement

Centromere protein N (CENP-N), an important member of the centromere protein family, is essential for kinetochore assembly and chromosome segregation; however, the relevance of CENP-N in cancers remains unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate CENP-N expression and its functional mechanisms in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). CENP-N expression was up-regulated significantly in vitro and in vivo in OSCCs. Overexpressed CENP-N was closely (p < 0.05) correlated with tumor growth using quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, immunoblot analysis, and immunohistochemistry. CENP-N knockdown (shCENP-N) cells showed depressed cellular proliferation by cell-cycle arrest at the G1 phase with up-regulation of p21^Cip1 and p27^Kip1 and down-regulation of cyclin D1, CDK2, and CDK4. Interestingly, we newly discovered that calcitriol (1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) controlled the CENP-N expression level, leading to inhibition of tumor growth similar to shCENP-N cells. These results suggested that CENP-N plays a critical role in determining proliferation of OSCCs and that calcitriol might be a novel therapeutic drug for OSCCs by regulating CENP-N.

Hsa_circ_0004370 promotes esophageal cancer progression through miR-1294/LASP1 pathway

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) formed by back-splicing play multiple roles in the occurrence and development of cancer. Here, we found that hsa_circ_0004370 was up-regulated in both esophageal cancer (EC) tissues and cell lines. Loss function of hsa_circ_0004370 by si-RNA significantly suppressed proliferation and invasion and promoted apoptosis in both EC cell lines. The sponging of miR-1294 by hsa_circ_0004370 was bioinformatically predicted and subsequently verified by luciferase reporter assay and RNA immunoprecipitation assay. Further, hsa_circ_0004370 involved in the up-regulation of LASP1 by sponging miR-1294. Besides, the inhibition of the down-regulated hsa_circ_0004370 on cell malignant behaviors was rescued by miR-1294 inhibitor. Finally, this rescue effect was abrogated by suppressing the expression of LASP1. The results present here suggest that hsa_circ_0004370 functions as an oncogene on cell proliferation, apoptosis, and invasion via miR-1294/LASP1 axis.

UNC93B1 promotes tumoral growth by controlling the secretion level of granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor in human oral cancer

Unc-93 homolog B1 (UNC93B1), a transmembrane protein, is correlated with immune diseases, such as influenza, herpes simplex encephalitis, and the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus; however, the role of UNC93B1 in cancers including human oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCCs) remains unknown. In the current study, we investigated the UNC93B1expression level in OSCCs using quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, immunoblot analysis, and immunohistochemistry. Our data showed that UNC93B1 mRNA and protein expressions increased markedly (p < 0.05) in OSCCs compared with normal cells and tissues and that high expression of UNC93B1 in OSCCs was related closely to tumoral size. UNC93B1 knockdown (shUNC93B1) OSCC cells showed decreased cellular proliferation by cell-cycle arrest in the G1 phase with up-regulation of p21^Cip1 and down-regulation of CDK4, CDK6, cyclin D1, and cyclin E. We also found that granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) was down-regulated significantly (p < 0.05) in shUNC93B1 OSCC cells. Moreover, inactivation of GM-CSF using neutralization antibody led to cell-cycle arrest at the G1 phase similar to the phenotype of the shUNC93B1 cells. The current findings indicated that UNC93B1 might play a crucial role in OSCC by controlling the secretion level of GM-CSF involved in tumoral growth and could be a potential therapeutic target for OSCCs.

MicroRNA-342-3p functions as a tumor suppressor by targeting LIM and SH3 protein 1 in oral squamous cell carcinoma

Although microRNA-342-3p (miR-342-3p) deregulation has been implicated in the development of a variety of cancer types, its role in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) progression remains unclear. Overexpression of LIM and SH3 protein 1 (LASP1) in OSCC tissues, and its promotion of OSCC cell proliferation were recently reported. However, the regulatory mechanism underlining LASP1 expression remains unknown. In the present study, the notable downregulation of miR-342-3p in OSCC cell lines and clinical specimens was revealed. The Cell Counting kit-8 and 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine-incorporation assays demonstrated that miR-342-3p suppressed OSCC cell proliferation. Additionally, LASP1 was identified as a target gene of miR-342-3p through bioinformatics analysis and luciferase reporter assays. Further experiments suggested that overexpression of LASP1 attenuated the suppressive effect of miR-342-3p on the proliferation of OSCC cells. In conclusion, the present data suggest that miR-342-3p functions as a tumor suppressor in OSCC via targeting of LASP1 and may be a promising therapeutic target for OSCC.

New Frontiers for the Cytoskeletal Protein LASP1

In the recent two decades, LIM and SH3 protein 1 (LASP1) has been developed from a simple actin-binding structural protein to a tumor biomarker and subsequently to a complex, nuclear transcriptional regulator. Starting with a brief historical perspective, this review will mainly compare and contrast LASP1 and LASP2 from the angle of the newest data and importantly, examine their role in transcriptional regulation. We will summarize the current knowledge through pictorial models and tables including the roles of different microRNAs in the differential regulation of LASP1 levels and patient outcome rather than specify in detail all tumor entities. Finally, the novel functional roles of LASP1 in secretion of vesicles, expression of matrix metalloproteinases and transcriptional regulation as well as the activation of survival and proliferation pathways in different cancer types are described.

Diacylglycerol lipase alpha promotes tumorigenesis in oral cancer by cell-cycle progression

Diacylglycerol lipase alpha (DAGLA), which catalyzes the hydrolysis of diacylglycerol to 2-arachidonoylglycerol and free fatty acid, is required for axonal growth during the brain development and for retrograde synaptic signaling at mature synapses. So far, no information was found regarding the possible role of DAGLA in human tumorigenesis. Thus, the current study sought to clarify the contribution of DAGLA in oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCCs) and assess the clinical possibilities for OSCC treatment. Using real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, immunoblotting, and immunohistochemistry, we found a significant up-regulation of DAGLA in OSCCs compared with normal cells and tissues both at mRNA and protein expression levels. Knockdown models in OSCC-derived cell lines for DAGLA (siDAGLA) and treatment with a lipase inhibitor (orlistat) showed several depressed cellular functions, including cellular proliferation and migratory activities through cell-cycle arrest at G1 phase. Furthermore, we found that DAGLA-positive OSCC samples were correlated highly with the primary tumoral size. We concluded that DAGLA may be a key determinant in tumoral progression and might be a therapeutic target for OSCCs.

Evaluation of tryptophan-aspartic acid repeat-containing protein 34 as a novel tumor-suppressor molecule in human oral cancer

Tryptophan-aspartic acid (WD) repeat-containing protein 34 (WDR34), one of the WDR protein superfamilies with five WD40 domains, inhibits a transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) activated kinase 1 (TAK1)-associated NF-κB activation pathway. Nevertheless, little is known about the roles of WDR34 in cancer. The current study sought to elucidate the clinical relevance of WDRsfb34 in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). We found WDR34 down-regulation in OSCCs compared with normal control tissues using real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, immunoblotting, and immunohistochemistry. Models of overexpression of WDR34 (oeWDR34) showed depressed cellular growth through cell-cycle arrest at the G1 phase. To investigate the inhibitory function of WDR34, we challenged oeWDR34 cells with interleukin (IL)-1, a ligand for activation of the TAK1-NF-κB pathway and assessed the expression of a target gene of the pathway. oeWDR34 strongly inhibited IL-6 expression, which is closely related to tumoral growth, compared with control cells, suggesting that WDR34 would be a critical molecule for control of tumoral progression. In addition to the in vitro experiments, WDR34 negativity was correlated with tumoral growth of OSCCs. Our findings suggested that WDR34 inhibits OSCC progression and might be a potential tumor-suppressor molecule in OSCCs.

Role of LASP-1, a novel SOX9 transcriptional target, in the progression of lung cancer

Lung cancer accounts for most cancer-related deaths worldwide. However, the underlying mechanism by which it mediates the progression of lung cancer remains unclear. Expression of LASP-1 (LIM and SH3 protein 1) was evaluated in lung cancer tissues and tumor-adjacent normal tissues using immunohistochemistry and western blotting. Functional studies have shown that siRNA-mediated silencing of LASP-1 in human lung cancer cells and reduced cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Flow cytometry and immunofluorescence staining also revealed that rate of cell apoptosis was increased after knockdown of expression of LASP-1, thereby suggesting that LASP-1 may function as an oncogene during lung cancer progression. SOX9 is an important transcription factor, which is involved in the development of several types of human cancer. Further analysis has showed the presence of a consensus-binding site of SOX9 in the promoter region of LASP-1. Mechanistic investigations showed that LASP-1 was transcriptionally activated by SOX9. Through luciferase reporter and ChIP assays, we demonstrated that LASP-1 was a direct target gene of sex determining region Y-box 9 (SOX9). Knockdown of SOX9 expression by RNA interference reduces cell proliferation and induces apoptosis of lung cancer cells, which was consistent with the results obtained from silencing the expression of LASP-1 in NCI‑H1650 cells. Together, these findings indicated that LASP-1, as a downstream target of SOX9, may act as a novel biomarker for lung cancer and plays an important role in cell proliferation, migration, and invasion.

The role of LIM and SH3 protein-1 in bladder cancer metastasis

The LIM and SH3 protein-1 (LASP-1) is a multi-domain protein that is involved in several malignant cancers. The role of LASP-1 in malignant phenotypes including high invasive properties and unrestricted cell proliferation, remain to be elucidated. The present study reported the association of LASP-1 expression with bladder cancer malignancy and its role in cancer cell invasion and proliferation. The immunohistochemical analysis of the expression status of LASP-1 in radical cystectomy specimens from invasive bladder cancer patients revealed that the LASP-1-positive patients demonstrated a decreased survival rate compared with the LASP-1-negative patients. The expression level of LASP-1 was increased in invasive bladder cancer cell lines compared with the non-invasive bladder cancer cell lines. Invasive cancer cells form invadopodia, the filamentous actin-based membrane protrusions that are essential in cancer cell invasion. Knockdown of LASP-1 reduced the ability to form invadopodia, resulting in decreased invasive capacity of the LASP-1 knockdown cells. In addition, knockdown of LASP-1 reduced cell proliferation. These results suggest that LASP-1 is important in invadopodia formation and cell proliferation of bladder cancer cells, promoting the malignant properties and resulting in poor-prognosis.

A seven-gene prognostic signature for rapid determination of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma survival

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is the sixth most common cancer and displays divergent clinical outcomes. Prognostic biomarkers might improve risk stratification and survival prediction. We aimed to investigate the prognostic genes associated with overall survival. A two-step gene selection method was used to develop a seven-gene-based prognostic model based on the training set collected from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). In addition, the prognostic model was validated in an independent testing set from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). The score based on the model successfully distinguished HNSCC survival into high-risk and low-risk groups in the training set (HR, 2.79; 95% CI, 1.98–3.92; P=4.05×10⁻⁹) and the testing set (HR, 2.05; 95% CI, 1.35–3.11; P=7.98×10⁻⁴). In addition, the score could significantly predict 5-year survival by ROC curves (AUCs for training set, 0.73; testing set, 0.66). Combining risk scores with clinical characteristics improved the AUCs beyond using clinical characteristics alone (training set, from 0.57 to 0.75; testing set, from 0.63 to 0.72). A subgroup sensitivity analysis with HPV status and tumor sites revealed that the risk score was significant in all subgroups except oral cavity tumors of the testing set. Furthermore, HPV-positive status improves survival in oropharyngeal HNSCC but not non-oropharyngeal HNSCC. In conclusion, the seven-gene prognostic signature is a reliable and practical prognostic tool for HNSCC. This approach can add prognostic value to clinical characteristics and provides a new possibility for individualized treatment.

Lasp2 enhances tumor invasion via facilitating phosphorylation of FAK and predicts poor overall survival of non-small cell lung cancer patients

Lasp2, as well as Lasp1, is a member of the LIM-protein subfamily of the nebulin group characterized by the combined presence of LIM and SH3 domains. Lasp1 and Lasp2 are highly conserved in their LIM, nebulin-like, and SH3 domains but differ significantly at their linker regions. Lasp1 had been described as an oncogenic protein that was highly expressed in diverse cancer types and facilitated tumor proliferation, invasion, and metastasis process. However, unlike Lasp1, little is known about the functions of Lasp2. In the present study, using immunohistochemistry, we found that Lasp2 expression was significantly correlated with histological type (P = 0.012), advanced TNM stage (P = 0.024), positive regional lymph node metastasis (P = 0.035), and poor overall survival (P = 0.001). Would healing assay and transwell assay results indicated that Lasp2 promoted tumor migration and invasion in NSCLC cells. Furthermore, Lasp2 facilitated Snail expression and inhibited Zo-1. The levels of phosphorylated FAK (Tyr397 and Tyr925) were obviously increased after overexpressing Lasp2 and were downregulated by transfecting Lasp2-siRNA. FAK inhibitor counteracted upregulating Snail expression and downregulating of Zo-1 expression induced by Lasp2 overexpression. Taken together, Lasp2 may facilitate tumor migration and invasion of NSCLCs through FAK-Snail/Zo-1 signaling pathway. Lasp2 may be a potential prognostic predictor of NSCLC patients.

Silencing of LIM and SH3 Protein 1 (LASP-1) Inhibits Thyroid Cancer Cell Proliferation and Invasion

LIM and SH3 protein 1 (LASP-1) is a specific focal adhesion protein that was first identified in breast cancer and then reported to be involved in cell proliferation and migration. Many studies have demonstrated the essential role of LASP-1 in cancer progression. However, there have been no studies on the association of LASP-1 with thyroid cancer. In this study, we investigated the expression pattern and biological function of LASP-1 in thyroid cancer. We found that LASP-1 was highly expressed in thyroid cancer tissues and cell lines. LASP-1 silencing had antiproliferative and anti-invasive effects on thyroid cancer cells. Moreover, tumor xenograft experiments showed that LASP-1 silencing suppressed thyroid cancer cell growth in vivo. We also demonstrated that LASP-1 silencing decreased the protein expression of p-PI3K and p-Akt. In conclusion, these findings suggest LASP-1 to be an oncogene and a potential therapeutic target in thyroid cancer.

Activin B Regulates Adhesion, Invasiveness, and Migratory Activities in Oral Cancer: a Potential Biomarker for Metastasis

Activin B, a homodimer of inhibin beta b (INHBB), is a multifunctional cytokine belonging to the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) family. However, the molecular functions and clinical relevance of activin B have not been determined in oral cancer. We investigated the critical roles of activin B in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). We performed quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry to study INHBB expression in OSCC-derived cell lines and OSCC clinical samples. The INHBB expression levels were significantly (P < 0.05) overexpressed in OSCCs compared to normal counterparts in vitro and in vivo. Activin B-positivity in OSCC cases was significantly (P < 0.05) correlated with regional lymph node metastasis. The INHBB knockdown (shINHBB) cells promoted cellular adhesion and suppression of cellular invasiveness and migration. After treatment of shINHBB cells with activin B, those activities were restored similar to the shMock cells. In the processes of invasiveness and metastasis, the cells cause epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). TGF-β and its family members are promoters of the EMT process. To investigate whether activin B is related to EMT, we examined the expressions of EMT-related genes and found that INHBB was related closely to EMT. Our results suggested for the first time that activin B indicates tumoral metastasis in OSCCs and might be a useful biomarker for OSCC metastasis.

Evidence for Critical Role of Lymphocyte Cytosolic Protein 1 in Oral Cancer

Lymphocyte cytosolic protein 1 (LCP1), a member of actin-binding protein of the plastin family, has been identified in several malignant tumors of non-hematopoietic sites, such as the colon, prostate, and breast. However, little is known about the roles of LCP1 in oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCCs). This present study sought to clarify the clinical relevance of LCP1 in OSCCs and investigate possible clinical applications for treating OSCCs by regulating LCP1 expression. We found up-regulation of LCP1in OSCCs compared with normal counterparts using real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), immunoblotting, and immunohistochemistry (P < 0.05). We used shRNA models for LCP1 (shLCP1) and enoxacin (ENX), a fluoroquinolone antibiotic drug, as a regulator of LCP1 expression. In addition to the LCP1 knockdown experiments in which shLCP1 cells showed several depressed functions, including cellular proliferation, invasiveness, and migratory activities, ENX-treated cells also had attenuated functions. Consistent with our hypothesis from our in vitro data, LCP1-positive OSCC samples were correlated closely with the primary tumoral size and regional lymph node metastasis. These results suggested that LCP1 is a useful biomarker for determining progression of OSCCs and that ENX might be a new therapeutic agent for treating OSCCs by controlling LCP1 expression.

Novel mechanism of aberrant ZIP4 expression with zinc supplementation in oral tumorigenesis

Zrt-Irt-like protein 4 (ZIP4) is critical molecule for proper mammalian development and releasing zinc from vesicular compartments. Recent studies suggested that ZIP4 plays an important role of tumor progression in pancreatic, prostate, and hepatocellular cancers, however, little is known about the detail mechanism of ZIP4 in their cancers. In the present study, we examined the possibility of ZIP4 as a new molecular target for oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). We evaluated ZIP4 expression in OSCC-derived cell lines and primary OSCC samples by quantitative RT-PCR, immunoblotting, and immunohistochemistry (IHC). We also analyzed the clinical correlation between ZIP4 status and clinical behaviors in patients with OSCC. In addition, ZIP4 knockdown cells (shZIP4 cells) and ZnCl₂ treatment were used for functional experiments, including cellular proliferation assay, zinc uptake assay, and cell-cycle analysis. ZIP4 mRNA and protein were up-regulated significantly in OSCCs compared with normal counterparts in vitro and in vivo. IHC showed that ZIP4 expression in the primary OSCC was positively correlated with primary tumoral size. The shZIP4 cells showed decrease accumulation of intercellular zinc and decreased cellular growth by cell-cycle arrest at the G1 phase, resulting from up-regulation of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors and down-regulation of cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases. Since cellular growth of OSCC cells after treatment with zinc was significantly greater than control cells, we speculated that intercellular ZnCl₂ accumulation is an important factor for cellular growth. Consistent with our hypothesis, not only decreased zinc uptake by ZIP4 knockdown but also chelating agent, N,N,N',N'-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl) ethylenediamine (TPEN), showed inhibitory effects of cellular proliferation. Therefore, our data provide evidence for an essential role of ZIP4 and intracellular zinc for tumoral growth in OSCC, suggesting that zinc uptake might be a potential therapeutic targeting event for OSCCs.

ARNT2 Regulates Tumoral Growth in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT) 2 is a transcriptional factor related to adaptive responses against cellular stress from a xenobiotic substance. Recent evidence indicates ARNT is involved in carcinogenesis and cancer progression; however, little is known about the relevance of ARNT2 in the behavior of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). In the current study, we evaluated the ARNT2 mRNA and protein expression levels in OSCC in vitro and in vivo and the clinical relationship between ARNT2 expression levels in primary OSCCs and their clinicopathologic status by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, immunoblotting, and immunohistochemistry. Using ARNT2 overexpression models, we performed functional analyses to investigate the critical roles of ARNT2 in OSCC. ARNT2 mRNA and protein were down-regulated significantly (P < 0.05 for both comparisons) in nine OSCC-derived cells and primary OSCC (n=100 patients) compared with normal counterparts. In addition to the data from exogenous experiments that ARNT2-overexpressed cells showed decreased cellular proliferation, ARNT2-positive OSCC cases were correlated significantly (P < 0.05) with tumoral size. Since von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor, E3 ubiquitin protein ligase, a negative regulator of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF1)-α, is a downstream molecule of ARNT2, we speculated that HIF1-α and its downstream molecules would have key functions in cellular growth. Consistent with our hypothesis, overexpressed ARNT2 cells showed down-regulation of HIF1-α, which causes hypofunctioning of glucose transporter 1, leading to decreased cellular growth. Our results proposed for the first time that the ARNT2 level is an indicator of cellular proliferation in OSCCs. Therefore, ARNT2 may be a potential therapeutic target against progression of OSCCs.

Overexpression of TMOD1 is associated with enhanced regional lymph node metastasis in human oral cancer

Tropomodulin1 (TMOD1), which regulates the length and depolymerization of actin filaments by binding to the pointed end of the actin filament, has been reported to be a powerful diagnostic marker for ALK-negative anaplastic large-cell lymphoma; however, little is known about the relevance of TMOD1 in the behavior of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). We evaluated TMOD1 expression in OSCC-derived cell lines and primary OSCC samples (n=200) using quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, immunoblotting and semi-quantitative immunohistochemistry. We also analyzed the clinical correlation between TMOD1 expression status and clinical parameters in patients with OSCC and performed a prospective study using 40 primary OSCC samples. TMOD1 expression was upregulated significantly (p<0.05) in OSCC in vitro and in vivo compared with normal counterparts. TMOD1 expression also was correlated significantly (p=0.0199 and p=0.0064, respectively) with regional lymph node metastasis (RLNM) and 5-year survival rates. This prospective study also showed that high TMOD1 expression was seen in 12 (75%) of 16 cases in RLNM-positive patients and 9 (37.5%) of 24 cases in RLNM-negative patients. The current data provide the first evidence that TMOD1 expression is a critical biomarker for RLNM and prognosis of patients with OSCC.

Down-Regulation of Nucleolar and Spindle-Associated Protein 1 (NUSAP1) Expression Suppresses Tumor and Cell Proliferation and Enhances Anti-Tumor Effect of Paclitaxel in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Background

Nucleolar and spindle-associated protein 1 (NUSAP1) is an important mitotic regulator. In addition to its crucial function in mitosis, NUSAP1 has recently received attention due to the interesting roles in carcinogenesis. The aim of this study was to reveal functional mechanisms of NUSAP1 in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC).

Methods

mRNA and protein expression levels of NUSAP1 in 9 OSCC-derived cells were analyzed by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and immunoblotting analyses. The correlation between the NUSAP1 expression profile and the clinicopathological factors was evaluated by immunohistochemistry (IHC) in clinical OSCC samples (n = 70). The NUSAP1 knockdown cells were established with short hairpin RNA (shRNA) in OSCC cells, and functional assays were performed using these cells. In addition to the evaluation of cellular proliferation and cell cycle, we also investigated the potential role of NUSAP1 in paclitaxel (PTX)-induced cellular responses.

Results

mRNA and protein expression of NUSAP1 were significantly up-regulated in OSCC-derived cells compared with human normal oral keratinocytes (P < 0.05). IHC revealed that NUSAP-1 expression is closely associated with primary advanced T stage (P<0.05). Suppression of NUSAP1 expression levels led to significant (P < 0.05) inhibition of cellular proliferation. Furthermore, apoptosis induced by PTX was enhanced in NUSAP1 knockdown OSCC cells.

Conclusions

NUSAP1 may be a crucial biomarker for OSCC. Moreover, down-regulated NUSAP1 expression suppresses tumor proliferation and also enhances anti-tumor effect of PTX by activating apoptotic pathways. Thus, the present study strongly suggests that regulating NUSAP1 expression should contribute to the therapy for OSCC.

Semaphorin7A Promotion of Tumoral Growth and Metastasis in Human Oral Cancer by Regulation of G1 Cell Cycle and Matrix Metalloproteases: Possible Contribution to Tumoral Angiogenesis

Background

Semaphorins (SEMAs) consist of a large family of secreted and membrane-anchored proteins that are important in neuronal pathfinding and axon guidance in selected areas of the developing nervous system. Of them, SEMA7A has been reported to have a chemotactic activity in neurogenesis and to be an immunomodulator; however, little is known about the relevance of SEMA7A in the behaviors of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC).

Methods

We evaluated SEMA7A expression in OSCC-derived cell lines and primary OSCC samples using quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, immunoblotting, and semiquantitative immunohistochemistry (sq-IHC). In addition, SEMA7A knockdown cells (shSEMA7A cells) were used for functional experiments, including cellular proliferation, invasiveness, and migration assays. We also analyzed the clinical correlation between SEMA7A status and clinical behaviors in patients with OSCC.

Results

SEMA7A mRNA and protein were up-regulated significantly (P<0.05) in OSCC-derived cell lines compared with human normal oral keratinocytes. The shSEMA7A cells showed decreased cellular growth by cell-cycle arrest at the G1 phase, resulting from up-regulation of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (p21^Cip1 and p27^Kip1) and down-regulation of cyclins (cyclin D1, cyclin E) and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK2, CDK4, and CDK6); and decreased invasiveness and migration activities by reduced secretion of matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) (MMP-2, proMMP-2, pro-MMP-9), and expression of membrane type 1- MMP (MT1-MMP). We also found inactivation of the extracellular regulated kinase 1/2 and AKT pathways, an upstream molecule of cell-cycle arrest at the G1 phase, and reduced secretion of MMPs in shSEMA7A cells. sq-IHC showed that SEMA7A expression in the primary OSCCs was significantly (P = 0.001) greater than that in normal counterparts and was correlated with primary tumoral size (P = 0.0254) and regional lymph node metastasis (P = 0.0002).

Conclusion

Our data provide evidence for an essential role of SEMA7A in tumoral growth and metastasis in OSCC and indicated that SEMA7A may play a potential diagnostic/therapeutic target for use in patients with OSCC.

An update on the LIM and SH3 domain protein 1 (LASP1): a versatile structural, signaling, and biomarker protein

The gene encoding the LIM and SH3 domain protein (LASP1) was cloned two decades ago from a cDNA library of breast cancer metastases. As the first protein of a class comprising one N-terminal LIM and one C-terminal SH3 domain, LASP1 founded a new LIM-protein subfamily of the nebulin group. Since its discovery LASP1 proved to be an extremely versatile protein because of its exceptional structure allowing interaction with various binding partners, its ubiquitous expression in normal tissues, albeit with distinct expression patterns, and its ability to transmit signals from the cytoplasm into the nucleus. As a result, LASP1 plays key roles in cell structure, physiological processes, and cell signaling. Furthermore, LASP1 overexpression contributes to cancer aggressiveness hinting to a potential value of LASP1 as a cancer biomarker.

In this review we summarize published data on structure, regulation, function, and expression pattern of LASP1, with a focus on its role in human cancer and as a biomarker protein. In addition, we provide a comprehensive transcriptome analysis of published microarrays (n=2,780) that illustrates the expression profile of LASP1 in normal tissues and its overexpression in a broad range of human cancer entities.

Adenosine A2b receptor promotes progression of human oral cancer

BACKGROUND

Adenosine A2b receptor (ADORA2B) encodes an adenosine receptor that is a member of the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily. This integral membrane protein stimulates adenylate cyclase activity in the presence of adenosine. Little is known about the relevance of ADORA2B to human malignancy including oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). We aimed to characterize the expression state and function of ADORA2B in OSCC.

METHODS

The ADORA2B expression levels in nine OSCC-derived cells were analyzed by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and immunoblotting analyses. Using an ADORA2B knockdown model, we assessed cellular proliferation and expression of hypoxia-inducible factor1α (HIF-1α). We examined the adenosine receptor expression profile under both normoxic and hypoxic conditions in the OSCC-derived cells. In addition to in vitro data, the clinical correlation between the ADORA2B expression levels in primary OSCCs (n = 100 patients) and the clinicopathological status by immunohistochemistry (IHC) also was evaluated.

RESULTS

ADORA2B mRNA and protein were up-regulated significantly (p < 0.05) in seven OSCC-derived cells compared with human normal oral keratinocytes. Suppression of ADORA2B expression with shRNA significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited cellular proliferation compared with the control cells. HIF-1α also was down-regulated in ADORA2B knockdown OSCC cells. During hypoxia, ADORA2B expression was induced significantly (p < 0.05) in the mRNA and protein after 24 hours of incubation in OSCC-derived cells. IHC showed that ADORA2B expression in primary OSCCs was significantly (p < 0.05) greater than in the normal oral counterparts and that ADORA2B-positive OSCCs were correlated closely (p < 0.05) with tumoral size.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggested that ADORA2B controls cellular proliferation via HIF-1α activation, indicating that ADORA2B may be a key regulator of tumoral progression in OSCCs.

LASP1, a Newly Identified Melanocytic Protein with a Possible Role in Melanin Release, but Not in Melanoma Progression

The LIM and SH3 protein 1 (LASP1) is a focal adhesion protein. Its expression is increased in many malignant tumors. However, little is known about the physiological role of the protein. In the present study, we investigated the expression and function of LASP1 in normal skin, melanocytic nevi and malignant melanoma. In normal skin, a distinct LASP1 expression is visible only in the basal epidermal layer while in nevi LASP1 protein is detected in all melanocytes. Melanoma exhibit no increase in LASP1 mRNA compared to normal skin. In melanocytes, the protein is bound to dynamin and mainly localized at late melanosomes along the edges and at the tips of the cell. Knockdown of LASP1 results in increased melanin concentration in the cells. Collectively, we identified LASP1 as a hitherto unknown protein in melanocytes and as novel partner of dynamin in the physiological process of membrane constriction and melanosome vesicle release.

Molecular characterization of LASP-1 expression reveals vimentin as its new partner in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third most common cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. We have previously reported that LASP-1 is a downstream protein of the urokinase type plasminogen activator (uPA). Here we investigated the role of LASP-1 in HCC by a molecular and biological characterization of LASP-1 expression in human HCC specimens and in cultured HCC cells. We determined the LASP-1 mRNA expression levels in 55 HCC cases with different hepatic background disease. We identified 3 groups of patients with high, equal or low LASP-1 mRNA levels in HCC tissues compared to the peritumoral (PT) tissues. In particular we found that i) the HCCs displayed a higher LASP-1 mRNA level in HCC compared to PT tissues; ii) the expression levels of LASP-1 mRNA in female HCCs were significantly higher compared to male HCCs; iii) the cirrhotic HCCs displayed a higher LASP-1 mRNA. Further, the biological characterization of the ectopic LASP-1 overexpression in HCC cells, using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometer on the LASP-1 co-immunoprecipitated fractions, displayed vimentin as a novel putative partner of LASP-1. Our results suggest that LASP-1 mRNA overexpression may be mainly implicated in female HCCs and cirrhotic HCCs; and that LASP1 may play its role with vimentin in HCC cells.

ANGPTL3 is a novel biomarker as it activates ERK/MAPK pathway in oral cancer

Angiopoietin-like 3 (ANGPTL3), which is involved in new blood vessel growth and stimulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), is expressed aberrantly in several types of human cancers. However, little is known about the relevance of ANGPTL3 in the behavior of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). In this study, we evaluated ANGPTL3 mRNA and protein in OSCC-derived cell lines (n = 8) and primary OSCCs (n = 109) and assessed the effect of ANGPTL3 on the biology and function of OSCCs in vitro and in vivo. Significant (P < 0.05) ANGPTL3 upregulation was detected in the cell lines and most primary OSCCs (60%) compared with the normal counterparts. The ANGPTL3 expression level was correlated closely (P < 0.05) with tumoral size. In patients with T3/T4 tumors, the overall survival rate with an ANGPTL3-positive tumor was significantly (P < 0.05) lower than that of ANGPTL3-negative cases. In vitro, cellular growth in ANGPTL3 knockdown cells significantly (P < 0.05) decreased with inactivated extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) and cell-cycle arrest at the G1 phase resulting from upregulation of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors, including p21^Cip1 and p27^Kip1. We also observed a marked (P < 0.05) reduction in the growth in ANGPTL3 knockdown-cell xenografts with decreased levels of phosphorylated ERK relative to control-cell xenografts. The current data indicated that ANGPTL3 may play a role in OSCCs via MAPK signaling cascades, making it a potentially useful diagnostic/therapeutic target for use in patients with OSCC.

WWP2 is overexpressed in human oral cancer, determining tumor size and poor prognosis in patients: downregulation of WWP2 inhibits the AKT signaling and tumor growth in mice

The WW domain containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 2 (WWP2) encodes a member of the Nedd4 family of E3 ligases, which catalyzes the final step of the ubiquitination cascade. WWP2 is involved in tumoral growth with degradation of the tumor suppressor phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome TEN (PTEN). However, little is known about the mechanisms and roles of WWP2 in human malignancies including oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCCs). We found frequent WWP2 overexpression in all OSCC-derived cell lines examined that was associated with cellular growth by accelerating the cell cycle in the G1 phase via degradation of PTEN and activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Our in vivo data of WWP2 silencing showed dramatic inhibition of tumoral growth with increased expression of PTEN. Our 104 primary OSCCs had significantly higher expression of WWP2 than their normal counterparts. Moreover, among the clinical variables analyzed, enhanced WWP2 expression was correlated with primary tumoral size and poor prognosis. These data suggested that WWP2 overexpression contributes to neoplastic promotion via the PTEN/PI3K/AKT pathway in OSCCs. WWP2 is likely to be a biomarker of tumoral progression and prognosis and a potential therapeutic target for development of anticancer drugs in OSCCs.