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Szabo B, Whiting MJ. A new protocol for investigating visual two-choice discrimination learning in lizards. Anim Cogn 2022; 25:935-950. [PMID: 35124743 PMCID: PMC9334418 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01603-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
One of the most widely studied abilities in lizards is discrimination learning. The protocols used to test lizards are often novel or adapted from other taxa without proper validation. We need to ensure that tests of discrimination learning are appropriate and properly applied in lizards so that robust inferences can be made about cognitive ability. Here, we present a new protocol for testing lizard discrimination learning that incorporates a target training procedure, uses many daily trials for efficiency and reinforcement, and has a robust, validated, learning criterion. We trained lizards to touch a cue card using operant conditioning and tested lizards separately on a colour, and pattern discrimination test. Lizards successfully learnt to touch a cue card and to discriminate between light and dark blue but had issues discriminating the patterns. After modifying the test procedure, some lizards reached criterion, revealing possible issues with stimulus processing and interference of generalisation. Here, we describe a protocol for operant conditioning and two-choice discrimination learning in lizards with a robust learning criterion that can help researcher better design future studies on discrimination learning in lizards.
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Invasive Italian wall lizards outcompete native congeneric species in finding food in a Y-maze. Acta Ethol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10211-021-00385-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Abstract
Explaining how animals respond to an increasingly urbanised world is a major challenge for evolutionary biologists. Urban environments often present animals with novel problems that differ from those encountered in their evolutionary past. To navigate these rapidly changing habitats successfully, animals may need to adjust their behaviour flexibly over relatively short timescales. These behavioural changes, in turn, may be facilitated by an ability to acquire, store and process information from the environment. The question of how cognitive abilities allow animals to avoid threats and exploit resources (or constrain their ability to do so) is attracting increasing research interest, with a growing number of studies investigating cognitive and behavioural differences between urban-dwelling animals and their non-urban counterparts. In this review we consider why such differences might arise, focusing on the informational challenges faced by animals living in urban environments, and how different cognitive abilities can assist in overcoming these challenges. We focus largely on birds, as avian taxa have been the subject of most research to date, but discuss work in other species where relevant. We also address the potential consequences of cognitive variation at the individual and species level. For instance, do urban environments select for, or influence the development of, particular cognitive abilities? Are individuals or species with particular cognitive phenotypes more likely to become established in urban habitats? How do other factors, such as social behaviour and individual personality, interact with cognition to influence behaviour in urban environments? The aim of this review is to synthesise current knowledge and identify key avenues for future research, in order to improve our understanding of the ecological and evolutionary consequences of urbanisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria E Lee
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter Penryn Campus, Penryn, UK
| | - Alex Thornton
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter Penryn Campus, Penryn, UK
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Putman BJ, Pauly GB, Blumstein DT. Urban invaders are not bold risk-takers: a study of 3 invasive lizards in Southern California. Curr Zool 2020; 66:657-665. [PMID: 33391365 PMCID: PMC7769584 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoaa015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological invasions threaten biodiversity worldwide, and therefore, understanding the traits of successful invaders could mitigate their spread. Many commonly invasive species do well in disturbed habitats, such as urban environments, and their abilities to effectively respond to disturbances could contribute to their invasiveness. Yet, there are noninvasive species that also do well in disturbed habitats. The question remains whether urban invaders behave differently in urban environments than noninvaders, which could suggest an "urban-exploiting" phenotype. In Southern California, the co-occurrence of invasive Italian wall lizards Podarcis siculus, brown anoles Anolis sagrei, and green anoles A. carolinensis, and native western fence lizards Sceloporus occidentalis offers an opportunity to test whether invasives exhibit consistent differences in risk-taking within human-altered habitats compared with a native species. We predicted that invasive lizards would exhibit more bold behavior by having shorter flight-initiation distances (FIDs) and by being found farther from a refuge (behaviors that would presumably maximize foraging in low-risk environments). Invasive populations had similar or longer FIDs, but were consistently found at distances closer to a refuge. Collectively, invasive lizards in urban habitats were not bolder than a native species. Reliance on nearby refuges might help species successfully invade urban habitats, and if a general pattern, may pose an added challenge in detecting or eliminating them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Breanna J Putman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1606, USA
- Department of Herpetology and Urban Nature Research Center, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, 900 Exposition Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA, 90007, USA
| | - Gregory B Pauly
- Department of Herpetology and Urban Nature Research Center, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, 900 Exposition Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA, 90007, USA
| | - Daniel T Blumstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1606, USA
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DeRoy EM, Hussey NE, MacIsaac HJ. Behaviourally-mediated learning ability in an invasive marine fish. Biol Invasions 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-020-02329-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Szabo B, Noble DWA, Whiting MJ. Learning in non-avian reptiles 40 years on: advances and promising new directions. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 96:331-356. [PMID: 33073470 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Recently, there has been a surge in cognition research using non-avian reptile systems. As a diverse group of animals, non-avian reptiles [turtles, the tuatara, crocodylians, and squamates (lizards, snakes and amphisbaenids)] are good model systems for answering questions related to cognitive ecology, from the role of the environment on the brain, behaviour and learning, to how social and life-history factors correlate with learning ability. Furthermore, given their variable social structure and degree of sociality, studies on reptiles have shown that group living is not a pre-condition for social learning. Past research has demonstrated that non-avian reptiles are capable of more than just instinctive reactions and basic cognition. Despite their ability to provide answers to fundamental questions in cognitive ecology, and a growing literature, there have been no recent systematic syntheses of research in this group. Here, we systematically, and comprehensively review studies on reptile learning. We identify 92 new studies investigating learning in reptiles not included in previous reviews on this topic - affording a unique opportunity to provide a more in-depth synthesis of existing work, its taxonomic distribution, the types of cognitive domains tested and methodologies that have been used. Our review therefore provides a major update on our current state of knowledge and ties the collective evidence together under nine umbrella research areas: (i) habituation of behaviour, (ii) animal training through conditioning, (iii) avoiding aversive stimuli, (iv) spatial learning and memory, (v) learning during foraging, (vi) quality and quantity discrimination, (vii) responding to change, (viii) solving novel problems, and (ix) social learning. Importantly, we identify knowledge gaps and propose themes which offer important future research opportunities including how cognitive ability might influence fitness and survival, testing cognition in ecologically relevant situations, comparing cognition in invasive and non-invasive populations of species, and social learning. To move the field forward, it will be immensely important to build upon the descriptive approach of testing whether a species can learn a task with experimental studies elucidating causal reasons for cognitive variation within and among species. With the appropriate methodology, this young but rapidly growing field of research should advance greatly in the coming years providing significant opportunities for addressing general questions in cognitive ecology and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Szabo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia.,Division of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstrasse 50a, Bern, 3032, Switzerland
| | - Daniel W A Noble
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Martin J Whiting
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW, 2109, Australia
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Szabo B, Damas-Moreira I, Whiting MJ. Can Cognitive Ability Give Invasive Species the Means to Succeed? A Review of the Evidence. Front Ecol Evol 2020. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2020.00187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Rapid learning of a spatial memory task in a lacertid lizard (Podarcis liolepis). Behav Processes 2019; 169:103963. [PMID: 31545992 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2019.103963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Mammals and birds are capable of navigating to a goal using learned map-like representations of space (i.e. place learning), but research assessing this navigational strategy in reptiles has produced inconclusive results, in part due to the use of procedures that do not take account of the peculiarities of reptilian behavior and physiology. Here I present a procedure suitable for testing spatial cognition that exploits a naturally evolved, ethologically relevant ability common to many lizards (i.e. refuge seeking behavior). The procedure requires lizards to learn the location of an open refuge inside a rectangular arena containing artificial refuges in every corner, using distal extramaze visual cues and with no local cues marking the location of the open refuge. The procedure probes the lizards' place learning ability and effectively rules out the use of egocentric and response-based strategies. The described procedure was successfully used to demonstrate place learning in a lacertid lizard (Podarcis liolepis). Over the course of two weeks of training both the latency to entering the open refuge and the number of corners visited in each trial decreased gradually, indicating that learning had taken place in over 60% of the lizards tested. These results confirm that, under certain circumstances, lizards are capable of navigating to a goal using a place learning strategy.
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De Meester G, Huyghe K, Van Damme R. Brain size, ecology and sociality: a reptilian perspective. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gilles De Meester
- Functional Morphology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Katleen Huyghe
- Functional Morphology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Raoul Van Damme
- Functional Morphology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
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Kang F, Goulet CT, Chapple DG. The impact of urbanization on learning ability in an invasive lizard. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blx131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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12
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Does personality influence learning? A case study in an invasive lizard. Oecologia 2017; 185:641-651. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-017-3975-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Foucaud J, Moreno C, Pascual M, Rezende EL, Castañeda LE, Gibert P, Mery F. Introduced Drosophila subobscura populations perform better than native populations during an oviposition choice task due to increased fecundity but similar learning ability. Ecol Evol 2016; 6:1725-36. [PMID: 26925216 PMCID: PMC4755011 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Revised: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The success of invasive species is tightly linked to their fitness in a putatively novel environment. While quantitative components of fitness have been studied extensively in the context of invasive species, fewer studies have looked at qualitative components of fitness, such as behavioral plasticity, and their interaction with quantitative components, despite intuitive benefits over the course of an invasion. In particular, learning is a form of behavioral plasticity that makes it possible to finely tune behavior according to environmental conditions. Learning can be crucial for survival and reproduction of introduced organisms in novel areas, for example, for detecting new predators, or finding mates or oviposition sites. Here we explored how oviposition performance evolved in relation to both fecundity and learning during an invasion, using native and introduced Drosophila subobscura populations performing an ecologically relevant task. Our results indicated that, under comparable conditions, invasive populations performed better during our oviposition task than did native populations. This was because invasive populations had higher fecundity, together with similar cognitive performance when compared to native populations, and that there was no interaction between learning and fecundity. Unexpectedly, our study did not reveal an allocation trade‐off (i.e., a negative relationship) between learning and fecundity. On the contrary, the pattern we observed was more consistent with an acquisition trade‐off, meaning that fecundity could be limited by availability of resources, unlike cognitive ability. This pattern might be the consequence of escaping natural enemies and/or competitors during the introduction. The apparent lack of evolution of learning may indicate that the introduced population did not face novel cognitive challenges in the new environment (i.e., cognitive “pre‐adaptation”). Alternatively, the evolution of learning may have been transient and therefore not detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Foucaud
- Laboratoire Evolution, Génomes, Comportement et Ecologie UMR-CNRS 9191 Gif/Yvette France
| | - Céline Moreno
- Laboratoire Evolution, Génomes, Comportement et Ecologie UMR-CNRS 9191 Gif/Yvette France
| | - Marta Pascual
- Department of Genetics and IrBio Universitat de Barcelona Av. Diagonal 643 08028 Barcelona Spain
| | - Enrico L Rezende
- Department of Life Sciences University of Roehampton Holybourne Avenue London SW15 4JD UK
| | - Luis E Castañeda
- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas Universidad Austral de Chile PO 5090000 Valdivia Chile
| | - Patricia Gibert
- Université de Lyon Université Lyon1 Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive UMR CNRS 5558 43 Bd du 11 Novembre 1918 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex France
| | - Frederic Mery
- Laboratoire Evolution, Génomes, Comportement et Ecologie UMR-CNRS 9191 Gif/Yvette France
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Michelangeli M, Wong BB, Chapple DG. It’s a trap: sampling bias due to animal personality is not always inevitable. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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