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Barbaric M, Vukojevic K, Kolobaric A, Orlovic Vlaho M, Kresic T, Soljic V. Expression of IMP3 and LIN28A RNA-Binding Proteins in Placentas of Patients with Pre-Eclampsia with and without Severe Features. Biomedicines 2024; 12:879. [PMID: 38672233 PMCID: PMC11048248 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12040879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND this study aimed to determine the expression of RNA-binding oncofetal proteins IMP3 and LIN28A in extravillous (EVT) and villous trophoblast (VT) cells of placentas from pre-eclamptic (PE) pregnancies to better understand the pathogenesis of PE. METHODS placental tissue of 10 patients with PE with severe features, 10 patients with PE without severe features and 20 age-matched healthy pregnancy controls were analyzed by immunohistochemistry, double immunofluorescence and qPCR. RESULTS We found a decreased percentage of IMP3-positive EVT cells in PE with and without severe features compared to that of the healthy control (p < 0.001). IMP3 expression was significantly low in VT of PE placentas compared to that of the healthy control (p = 0.002). There was no significant difference in LIN28A expression between groups of PE and the control group. Additionally, we noticed the trend toward downregulation of IMP3 mRNA and LIN28A mRNA in severe PE compared to that of healthy controls. CONCLUSIONS We demonstrated that IMP3 expression is decreased in EVT and VT cells of placentas from pregnancies complicated with both PE with and without severe features. However, additional functional investigations are needed to clarify the role of IMP3 as a potential therapeutic target in the management of PE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Barbaric
- Laboratory of Morphology, Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Mostar, 88000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina; (A.K.); (V.S.)
| | - Katarina Vukojevic
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia;
| | - Anita Kolobaric
- Laboratory of Morphology, Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Mostar, 88000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina; (A.K.); (V.S.)
| | - Martina Orlovic Vlaho
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology University Clinical Hospital Mostar, 88000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina; (M.O.V.); (T.K.)
- Faculty of Health Studies, University of Mostar, 88000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Tanja Kresic
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology University Clinical Hospital Mostar, 88000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina; (M.O.V.); (T.K.)
| | - Violeta Soljic
- Laboratory of Morphology, Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Mostar, 88000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina; (A.K.); (V.S.)
- Faculty of Health Studies, University of Mostar, 88000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Knowles T, Huang T, Qi J, An S, Burket N, Cooper S, Nazarian J, Saratsis AM. LIN28B and Let-7 in Diffuse Midline Glioma: A Review. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:3241. [PMID: 37370851 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15123241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Diffuse midline glioma (DMG) is the most lethal of all childhood cancers. DMGs are driven by histone-tail-mutation-mediated epigenetic dysregulation and partner mutations in genes controlling proliferation and migration. One result of this epigenetic and genetic landscape is the overexpression of LIN28B RNA binding protein. In other systems, LIN28B has been shown to prevent let-7 microRNA biogenesis; however, let-7, when available, faithfully suppresses tumorigenic pathways and induces cellular maturation by preventing the translation of numerous oncogenes. Here, we review the current literature on LIN28A/B and the let-7 family and describe their role in gliomagenesis. Future research is then recommended, with a focus on the mechanisms of LIN28B overexpression and localization in DMG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Truman Knowles
- W.M. Keck Science Department, Scripps, Pitzer, and Claremont McKenna Colleges, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
| | - Tina Huang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Jin Qi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Shejuan An
- Department of Neurosurgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Noah Burket
- Department of Neurosurgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Scott Cooper
- Department of Neurosurgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Javad Nazarian
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's National Hospital, Washington, DC 20010, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Zurich Children's Hospital, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Amanda M Saratsis
- Department of Neurosurgery, Lutheran General Hospital, Park Ridge, IL 60068, USA
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3
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Maklad A, Sedeeq M, Wilson R, Heath JA, Gueven N, Azimi I. LIN28 expression and function in medulloblastoma. J Cell Physiol 2023; 238:533-548. [PMID: 36649308 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.30946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common malignant pediatric brain tumor. Current treatment modalities are not completely effective and can lead to severe neurological and cognitive adverse effects. In addition to urgently needing better treatment approaches, new diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers are required to improve the therapy outcomes of MB patients. The RNA-binding proteins, LIN28A and LIN28B, are known to regulate invasive phenotypes in many different cancer types. However, the expression and function of these proteins in MB had not been studied to date. This study identified the expression of LIN28A and LIN28B in MB patient samples and cell lines and assessed the effect of LIN28 inhibition on MB cell growth, metabolism and stemness. LIN28B expression was significantly upregulated in MB tissues compared to normal brain tissues. This upregulation, which was not observed in other brain tumors, was specific for the aggressive MB subgroups and correlated with patient survival and metastasis rates. Functionally, pharmacological inhibition of LIN28 activity concentration-dependently reduced LIN28B expression, as well as the growth of D283 MB cells. While LIN28 inhibition did not affect the levels of intracellular ATP, it reduced the expression of the stemness marker CD133 in D283 cells and the sphere formation of CHLA-01R cells. LIN28B, which is highly expressed in the human cerebellum during the first few months after birth, subsequently decreased with age. The results of this study highlight the potential of LIN28B as a diagnostic and prognostic marker for MB and open the possibility to utilize LIN28 as a pharmacological target to suppress MB cell growth and stemness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Maklad
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Mohammed Sedeeq
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Richard Wilson
- Central Science Laboratory, College of Science and Engineering, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - John A Heath
- School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
- Department of Paediatrics, Royal Hobart Hospital, Hobart, Australia
| | - Nuri Gueven
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Iman Azimi
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
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4
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Lin Z, Radaeva M, Cherkasov A, Dong X. Lin28 Regulates Cancer Cell Stemness for Tumour Progression. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:4640. [PMID: 36230562 PMCID: PMC9564245 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14194640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumours develop therapy resistance through complex mechanisms, one of which is that cancer stem cell (CSC) populations within the tumours present self-renewable capability and phenotypical plasticity to endure therapy-induced stress conditions and allow tumour progression to the therapy-resistant state. Developing therapeutic strategies to cope with CSCs requires a thorough understanding of the critical drivers and molecular mechanisms underlying the aforementioned processes. One such hub regulator of stemness is Lin28, an RNA-binding protein. Lin28 blocks the synthesis of let-7, a tumour-suppressor microRNA, and acts as a global regulator of cell differentiation and proliferation. Lin28also targets messenger RNAs and regulates protein translation. In this review, we explain the role of the Lin28/let-7 axis in establishing stemness, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and glucose metabolism reprogramming. We also highlight the role of Lin28 in therapy-resistant prostate cancer progression and discuss the emergence of Lin28-targeted therapeutics and screening methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuohui Lin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Faculty of Food and Land Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Mariia Radaeva
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Artem Cherkasov
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | - Xuesen Dong
- The Vancouver Prostate Centre, Department of Urologic Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
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5
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Sufianov A, Begliarzade S, Ilyasova T, Liang Y, Beylerli O. MicroRNAs as prognostic markers and therapeutic targets in gliomas. Noncoding RNA Res 2022; 7:171-177. [PMID: 35846075 PMCID: PMC9271693 DOI: 10.1016/j.ncrna.2022.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Gliomas are invasive brain tumors characterized by high rates of recurrence and mortality. Glioblastoma (GBM), a grade IV brain tumor, is known for its heterogenicity and its resistance to the current treatment regimen. MicroRNA (miRNAs) are small non-coding sequences of RNA that regulate and influence the expression of multiple genes. The detection of certain types of micro-RNA in tissues and blood serum can be used for diagnosis and prognosis, including the response of a particular patient to therapy. The purpose of this review is to analyze studies and experimental results concerning changes in microRNA expression profiles characteristic of gliomas. Furthermore, miRNAs also contribute to autophagy at multiple stages. In this review, we summarize the functions of miRNAs in GBM pathways linked to dysregulation of cell cycle control, apoptosis and resistance to treatment, and the possible use of miRNAs in clinical settings as treatment and prediction biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Sufianov
- Federal Center of Neurosurgery, Tyumen, Russia.,Department of Neurosurgery, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), Moscow, Russia.,Educational and Scientific Institute of Neurosurgery, Рeoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia
| | - Sema Begliarzade
- Republican Clinical Perinatal Center, Ufa, Republic of Bashkortostan, 450106, Russia
| | - Tatiana Ilyasova
- Department of Internal Diseases, Bashkir State Medical University, Ufa, Republic of Bashkortostan, 450008, Russia
| | - Yanchao Liang
- Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001, China.,Institute of Brain Science, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Ozal Beylerli
- Educational and Scientific Institute of Neurosurgery, Рeoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia
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6
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LIN28 Family in Testis: Control of Cell Renewal, Maturation, Fertility and Aging. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23137245. [PMID: 35806250 PMCID: PMC9266904 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23137245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Male reproductive development starts early in the embryogenesis with somatic and germ cell differentiation in the testis. The LIN28 family of RNA-binding proteins promoting pluripotency has two members—LIN28A and LIN28B. Their function in the testis has been investigated but many questions about their exact role based on the expression patterns remain unclear. LIN28 expression is detected in the gonocytes and the migrating, mitotically active germ cells of the fetal testis. Postnatal expression of LIN28 A and B showed differential expression, with LIN28A expressed in the undifferentiated spermatogonia and LIN28B in the elongating spermatids and Leydig cells. LIN28 interferes with many signaling pathways, leading to cell proliferation, and it is involved in important testicular physiological processes, such as cell renewal, maturation, fertility, and aging. In addition, aberrant LIN28 expression is associated with testicular cancer and testicular disorders, such as hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and Klinefelter’s syndrome. This comprehensive review encompasses current knowledge of the function of LIN28 paralogs in testis and other tissues and cells because many studies suggest LIN28AB as a promising target for developing novel therapeutic agents.
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7
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Cornelison R, Marrah L, Horter D, Lynch S, Li H. Targeting AVIL, a New Cytoskeleton Regulator in Glioblastoma. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413635. [PMID: 34948433 PMCID: PMC8706274 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common adult neural malignancy and the deadliest. The standard of care is optimal, safe, cytoreductive surgery followed by combined radiation therapy and alkylating chemotherapy with temozolomide. Recurrence is common and therapeutic options in the recurrent setting are limited. The dismal prognosis of GBM has led to novel treatments being a serious roadblock in the field, with most new treatments failing to show efficacy. Targeted therapies have shown some success in many cancers, but GBM remains one of the most difficult to treat, especially in recurrence. New chemotherapeutic directions need to be explored, possibly expanding the targeted chemotherapy spectrum in previously unforeseen ways. In this perspective paper, we will explain why AVIL, an actin-binding protein recently found to be overexpressed in GBM and a driving force for GBM, could prove versatile in the fight against cancer. By looking at AVIL and its potential to regulate FOXM1 and LIN28B, we will be able to highlight a way to improve outcomes for GBM patients who normally have very little hope.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Cornelison
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; (R.C.); (L.M.); (D.H.); (S.L.)
| | - Laine Marrah
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; (R.C.); (L.M.); (D.H.); (S.L.)
| | - Drew Horter
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; (R.C.); (L.M.); (D.H.); (S.L.)
| | - Sarah Lynch
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; (R.C.); (L.M.); (D.H.); (S.L.)
| | - Hui Li
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; (R.C.); (L.M.); (D.H.); (S.L.)
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-434-982-6624
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8
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Arayataweegool A, Srisuttee R, Bin-Alee F, Mahattanasakul P, Tangjaturonrasme N, Kerekhanjanarong V, Mutirangura A, Kitkumthorn N. Induction of ZCCHC6 expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells by HNSCC secretions. Gene 2020; 754:144880. [PMID: 32526260 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2020.144880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 05/31/2020] [Accepted: 06/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Cancer secretion can change the properties of adjacent cells, including peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). We investigated whether such secretion influences messenger RNA expression in PBMCs of patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). In the present study, co-culture model of normal PBMCs and HNSCC cell lines were established. The PBMCs were subsequently subjected to RNA sequencing for transcriptome analysis. Furthermore, expression data from the Gene Expression Omnibus repository, platform GPL4133, series GSE39400, were gathered to analyze, afterward identify zinc finger CysCysHisCys (CCHC)-type domain-containing protein 6 (ZCCHC6) as the main gene involved in HNSCC. This gene was then validated by a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. The results showed that ZCCHC6 was expressed at significantly higher levels in the patients with HNSCC than in the healthy controls, and the sensitivity and specificity of these findings for diagnostic purposes were 100.00% and 70.83%, respectively. In summary, our findings demonstrated that the secretion of HNSCC cells could cause the alterations in messenger RNA expression by PBMCs. The ZCCHC6 expression level may apply in HNSCC screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Areeya Arayataweegool
- Center of Excellence in Molecular Genetics of Cancer and Human Diseases, Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Ratakorn Srisuttee
- Faculty of Medicine, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand
| | - Fardeela Bin-Alee
- Program of Medical Science, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Patnarin Mahattanasakul
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital, Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Napadon Tangjaturonrasme
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Virachai Kerekhanjanarong
- Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Apiwat Mutirangura
- Center of Excellence in Molecular Genetics of Cancer and Human Diseases, Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Nakarin Kitkumthorn
- Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
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9
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Li M, Chen H, Wu T. LIN28: A cancer stem cell promoter for immunotherapy in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Oncol 2019; 98:92-95. [PMID: 31574415 DOI: 10.1016/j.oraloncology.2019.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Lin28, a highly conserved RNA-binding protein, plays an important role in differentiation, metabolism, proliferation, pluripotency, and tumourigenicity. Lin28 overexpression promotes tumour-cell proliferation and metastasis in various human cancers, including head and neck cancer. Multiple studies demonstrate that Lin28 critically contributes to anti-tumour immunity and production of cancer stem cells in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Thus, Lin28 has potential application in HNSCC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengxue Li
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST) & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, People's Republic of China
| | - Heng Chen
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST) & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, People's Republic of China
| | - Tianfu Wu
- The State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Basic Science of Stomatology (Hubei-MOST) & Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, People's Republic of China.
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10
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Zhang J, Xu A, Miao C, Yang J, Gu M, Song N. Prognostic value of Lin28A and Lin28B in various human malignancies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cancer Cell Int 2019; 19:79. [PMID: 30976203 PMCID: PMC6444518 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-019-0788-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The mammalian homologs of Lin-28, Lin28 (also called Lin28A) and Lin28B, are promising cancer biomarkers. This meta-analysis was performed to evaluate the prognostic values of Lin28A and Lin28B in multiple human malignancies. Methods Systematic searches of the PubMed, Web of Science and Embase were used to identify relevant studies. Pooled hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) for overall survival (OS), recurrence-free survival (RFS), disease-free survival (DFS), or progression-free survival (PFS) were respectively calculated. Results 3772 Lin28A-associated patients and 1730 Lin28B-related cases were ultimately enrolled in this meta-analysis. The elevated expression level of Lin28A was significantly associated with poor OS (HR = 1.60, P < 0.001) and poor RFS/DFS/PFS (HR = 1.62, P < 0.001) in patients with malignancies. Lin28B overexpression significantly correlated with unfavorable OS (HR = 1.72, P < 0.001) and RFS/DFS/PFS (HR = 2.35, P < 0.001) of human malignancies. Conclusions Lin28A and Lin28B possess significant prognostic values in various human malignancies. Overexpression of Lin28A or Lin28B suggests poor prognosis for cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayi Zhang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210029 China
| | - Aiming Xu
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210029 China
| | - Chenkui Miao
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210029 China
| | - Jie Yang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210029 China
| | - Min Gu
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210029 China
| | - Ninghong Song
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210029 China
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11
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Cardoso LC, Soares RDS, Laurentino TDS, Lerario AM, Marie SKN, Oba-Shinjo SM. CD99 Expression in Glioblastoma Molecular Subtypes and Role in Migration and Invasion. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20051137. [PMID: 30845661 PMCID: PMC6429353 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20051137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Revised: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive type of brain tumor, with an overall survival of 17 months under the current standard of care therapy. CD99, an over-expressed transmembrane protein in several malignancies, has been considered a potential target for immunotherapy. To further understand this potentiality, we analyzed the differential expression of its two isoforms in human astrocytoma specimens, and the CD99 involved signaling pathways in glioma model U87MG cell line. CD99 was also analyzed in GBM molecular subtypes. Whole transcriptomes by RNA-Seq of CD99-siRNA, and functional in vitro assays in CD99-shRNA, that are found in U87MG cells, were performed. Astrocytoma of different malignant grades and U87MG cells only expressed CD99 isoform 1, which was higher in mesenchymal and classical than in proneural GBM subtypes. Genes related to actin dynamics, predominantly to focal adhesion, and lamellipodia/filopodia formation were down-regulated in the transcriptome analysis, when CD99 was silenced. A decrease in tumor cell migration/invasion, and dysfunction of focal adhesion, were observed in functional assays. In addition, a striking morphological change was detected in CD99-silenced U87MG cells, further corroborating CD99 involvement in actin cytoskeleton rearrangement. Inhibiting the overexpressed CD99 may improve resectability and decrease the recurrence rate of GBM by decreasing tumor cells migration and invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lais C Cardoso
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology (LIM 15), Department of Neurology, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01246-903, Brazil.
| | - Roseli da S Soares
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology (LIM 15), Department of Neurology, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01246-903, Brazil.
| | - Talita de S Laurentino
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology (LIM 15), Department of Neurology, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01246-903, Brazil.
| | - Antonio M Lerario
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology, and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Suely K N Marie
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology (LIM 15), Department of Neurology, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01246-903, Brazil.
| | - Sueli Mieko Oba-Shinjo
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology (LIM 15), Department of Neurology, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 01246-903, Brazil.
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12
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Gomez-Verjan JC, Vazquez-Martinez ER, Rivero-Segura NA, Medina-Campos RH. The RNA world of human ageing. Hum Genet 2018; 137:865-879. [DOI: 10.1007/s00439-018-1955-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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13
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Xu X, Bao Z, Liu Y, Jiang K, Zhi T, Wang D, Fan L, Liu N, Ji J. PBX3/MEK/ERK1/2/LIN28/let-7b positive feedback loop enhances mesenchymal phenotype to promote glioblastoma migration and invasion. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2018; 37:158. [PMID: 30016974 PMCID: PMC6050701 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-018-0841-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Brain invasion by glioblastoma (GBM) determines recurrence and prognosis in patients, which is, in part, attributed to increased mesenchymal transition. Here, we report evidence favoring such a role for the Pre-B-cell leukemia homebox (PBX) family member PBX3. METHODS Western blot, immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR and datasets mining were used to determined proteins or genes expression levels. Wound-healing and transwell assays were used to examine the invasive abilities of GBM cells. Dual-luciferase reporter assays were used to determine how let-7b regulates PBX3. Chromatin-immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and rescue experiments were performed to investigate the involved molecular mechanisms. Orthotopic mouse models were used to assess the role of PBX3 in vivo. RESULTS We found that PBX3 expression levels positively correlated with glioma mesenchymal markers. Ectopic expression of PBX3 promoted invasive phenotypes and triggered the expression of mesenchymal markers, whereas depletion of PBX3 reduced GBM cell invasive abilities and decreased the expression of mesenchymal markers. In addition, inhibition of PBX3 attenuated transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ)-induced GBM mesenchymal transition. Mechanistic studies revealed that PBX3 mediated GBM mesenchymal transition through activation of MEK/ERK1/2, leading to increased expression of LIN28 by c-myc. Increased LIN28 inhibited let-7b biogenesis, which then promoted the pro-invasive genes, such as HMGA2 and IL-6. Furthermore, let-7b suppressed PBX3 by directly targeting 3'-UTR of PBX3. Thus, repressed let-7b by PBX3 amplifies PBX3 signaling and forms a positive feedback loop to promote GBM mesenchymal transition. CONCLUSIONS These data highlight the importance of PBX3 as a key driver of mesenchymal transition and potential therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiupeng Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Guangzhou Road 300, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhongyuan Bao
- Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Guangzhou Road 300, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yinlong Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Suzhou Municipal Hospital, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Kuan Jiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Yixing People's Hospital, Yixing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Tongle Zhi
- Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Guangzhou Road 300, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Dong Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Guangzhou Road 300, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Liang Fan
- Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Guangzhou Road 300, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ning Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Guangzhou Road 300, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jing Ji
- Department of Neurosurgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Guangzhou Road 300, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
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14
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Sharma K, Singh J, Frost EE, Pillai PP. MeCP2 overexpression inhibits proliferation, migration and invasion of C6 glioma by modulating ERK signaling and gene expression. Neurosci Lett 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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15
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Thanasupawat T, Natarajan S, Rommel A, Glogowska A, Bergen H, Krcek J, Pitz M, Beiko J, Krawitz S, Verma IM, Ghavami S, Klonisch T, Hombach-Klonisch S. Dovitinib enhances temozolomide efficacy in glioblastoma cells. Mol Oncol 2017; 11:1078-1098. [PMID: 28500786 PMCID: PMC5537714 DOI: 10.1002/1878-0261.12076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The multikinase inhibitor and FDA‐approved drug dovitinib (Dov) crosses the blood–brain barrier and was recently used as single drug application in clinical trials for GB patients with recurrent disease. The Dov‐mediated molecular mechanisms in GB cells are unknown. We used GB patient cells and cell lines to show that Dov downregulated the stem cell protein Lin28 and its target high‐mobility group protein A2 (HMGA2). The Dov‐induced reduction in pSTAT3Tyr705 phosphorylation demonstrated that Dov negatively affects the STAT3/LIN28/Let‐7/HMGA2 regulatory axis in GB cells. Consistent with the known function of LIN28 and HMGA2 in GB self‐renewal, Dov reduced GB tumor sphere formation. Dov treatment also caused the downregulation of key base excision repair factors and O6‐methylguanine‐DNA‐methyltransferase (MGMT), which are known to have important roles in the repair of temozolomide (TMZ)‐induced alkylating DNA damage. Combined Dov/TMZ treatment enhanced TMZ‐induced DNA damage as quantified by nuclear γH2AX foci and comet assays, and increased GB cell apoptosis. Pretreatment of GB cells with Dov (‘Dov priming’) prior to TMZ treatment reduced GB cell viability independent of p53 status. Sequential treatment involving ‘Dov priming’ and alternating treatment cycles with TMZ and Dov substantially reduced long‐term GB cell survival in MGMT+ patient GB cells. Our results may have immediate clinical implications to improve TMZ response in patients with LIN28+/HMGA2+GB, independent of their MGMT methylation status.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Suchitra Natarajan
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Amy Rommel
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Aleksandra Glogowska
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Hugo Bergen
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Jerry Krcek
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.,Department of Surgery, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Marshall Pitz
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Jason Beiko
- Department of Surgery, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Sherry Krawitz
- Department of Pathology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Inder M Verma
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Saeid Ghavami
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Thomas Klonisch
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.,Department of Surgery, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
| | - Sabine Hombach-Klonisch
- Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.,Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
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16
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Huang Q, Zhang XW, Ma YS, Lu GX, Xie RT, Yang HQ, Lv ZW, Zhong XM, Liu T, Huang SX, Fu D, Xie C. Up-regulated microRNA-299 corrected with poor prognosis of glioblastoma multiforme patients by targeting ELL2. Jpn J Clin Oncol 2017; 47:590-596. [DOI: 10.1093/jjco/hyw188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Huang
- Department of Burn and Plastic Surgery, People's Hospital of New District Longhua Shenzhen, Shenzhen
| | - Xin-Wen Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery Surgery, Tongde Hospital of Zhejian Province, Hangzhou
| | - Yu-Shui Ma
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai
| | - Gai-Xia Lu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai
| | - Ru-Ting Xie
- Department of Pathology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai
| | - Hui-Qiong Yang
- Department of Pathology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai
| | - Zhong-Wei Lv
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai
| | - Xiao-Ming Zhong
- Department of Radiology, Jiangxi Provincial Tumor Hospital, Nanchang
- Department of Radiology, Ganzhou City People's Hospital, Ganzhou
| | - Tao Liu
- Department of Neurology, People's Hospital of Hainan Province, Haikou
| | - Shi-Xiong Huang
- Department of Neurology, People's Hospital of Hainan Province, Haikou
| | - Da Fu
- Central Laboratory for Medical Research, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Chun Xie
- Department of Burn and Plastic Surgery, People's Hospital of New District Longhua Shenzhen, Shenzhen
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17
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Huang SX, Zhao ZY, Weng GH, He XY, Wu CJ, Fu CY, Sui ZY, Ma YS, Liu T. Upregulation of miR-181a suppresses the formation of glioblastoma stem cells by targeting the Notch2 oncogene and correlates with good prognosis in patients with glioblastoma multiforme. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2017; 486:1129-1136. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2017.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Accepted: 04/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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18
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Balzeau J, Menezes MR, Cao S, Hagan JP. The LIN28/let-7 Pathway in Cancer. Front Genet 2017; 8:31. [PMID: 28400788 PMCID: PMC5368188 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2017.00031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 315] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Among all tumor suppressor microRNAs, reduced let-7 expression occurs most frequently in cancer and typically correlates with poor prognosis. Activation of either LIN28A or LIN28B, two highly related RNA binding proteins (RBPs) and proto-oncogenes, is responsible for the global post-transcriptional downregulation of the let-7 microRNA family observed in many cancers. Specifically, LIN28A binds the terminal loop of precursor let-7 and recruits the Terminal Uridylyl Transferase (TUTase) ZCCHC11 that polyuridylates pre-let-7, thereby blocking microRNA biogenesis and tumor suppressor function. For LIN28B, the precise mechanism responsible for let-7 inhibition remains controversial. Functionally, the decrease in let-7 microRNAs leads to overexpression of their oncogenic targets such as MYC, RAS, HMGA2, BLIMP1, among others. Furthermore, mouse models demonstrate that ectopic LIN28 expression is sufficient to drive and/or accelerate tumorigenesis via a let-7 dependent mechanism. In this review, the LIN28/let-7 pathway is discussed, emphasizing its role in tumorigenesis, cancer stem cell biology, metabolomics, metastasis, and resistance to ionizing radiation and several chemotherapies. Also, emerging evidence will be presented suggesting that molecular targeting of this pathway may provide therapeutic benefit in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Balzeau
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston Houston, TX, USA
| | - Miriam R Menezes
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston Houston, TX, USA
| | - Siyu Cao
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston Houston, TX, USA
| | - John P Hagan
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston Houston, TX, USA
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19
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Kit O, Vodolazhsky D, Rostorguev E, Porksheyan D, Panina S. The role of micro-RNA in the regulation of signal pathways in gliomas. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 63:481-498. [DOI: 10.18097/pbmc20176306481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Gliomas are invasive brain tumors with high rates of recurrence and mortality. Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most deadly form of glioma with nearly 100% rate of recurrence and unfavorable prognosis in patients. Micro-RNAs (miR) are the class of wide-spread short non-coding RNAs that inhibit translation via binding to the mRNA of target genes. The aim of the present review is to analyze recent studies and experimental results concerning aberrant expression profiles of miR, which target components of the signaling pathways Hedgehog, Notch, Wnt, EGFR, TGFb, HIF1a in glioma/glioblastoma. Particularly, the interactions of miR with targets of 2-hydroxyglutarate (the product of mutant isocytrate dehydrogenase, R132H IDH1, which is specific for the glioma pathogenesis) have been considered in the present review. Detecting specific miRNAs in tissue and serum may serve as a diagnostic and prognostic tool for glioma, as well as for predicting treatment response of an individual patient, and potentially serving as a mechanism for creating personalized treatment strategies
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Affiliation(s)
- O.I. Kit
- Rostov Research Institute of Oncology, Rostov-on-Don, Russia
| | | | - E.E. Rostorguev
- Rostov Research Institute of Oncology, Rostov-on-Don, Russia
| | - D.H. Porksheyan
- Rostov Research Institute of Oncology, Rostov-on-Don, Russia
| | - S.B. Panina
- Rostov Research Institute of Oncology, Rostov-on-Don, Russia
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20
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Song H, Zhang Y, Liu N, Zhang D, Wan C, Zhao S, Kong Y, Yuan L. Let-7b inhibits the malignant behavior of glioma cells and glioma stem-like cells via downregulation of E2F2. J Physiol Biochem 2016; 72:733-744. [DOI: 10.1007/s13105-016-0512-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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21
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HUANG SHIXIONG, ZHAO ZHONGYAN, WENG GUOHU, HE XIANGYING, WU CHANJI, FU CHUANYI, SUI ZHIYAN, ZHONG XIAOMING, LIU TAO. The correlation of microRNA-181a and target genes with poor prognosis of glioblastoma patients. Int J Oncol 2016; 49:217-24. [DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2016.3511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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22
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Wang H, Zhao Q, Deng K, Guo X, Xia J. Lin28: an emerging important oncogene connecting several aspects of cancer. Tumour Biol 2016; 37:2841-8. [PMID: 26762415 DOI: 10.1007/s13277-015-4759-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA-binding protein Lin28 was originally found as a heterochronic gene which played a significant role in the development of Caenorhabditis elegans. The tumor suppressor let-7 is a downstream target of Lin28, which has a wide variety of target genes which are involved in many aspects of cellular activities. By inhibition of let-7 and directly binding the target RNAs, Lin28 plays an important role in different biological and pathological processes including differentiation, metabolism, proliferation, pluripotency, and tumorigenesis. Overexpression of Lin28 has been reported in several kinds of cancers and is correlated with poor outcomes. It has been shown that Lin28 could affect the progression of cancers in several ways, such as promoting proliferation, increasing glucose metabolism, and inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and cancer stem cells. Decrease of Lin28 expression or reactivation of let-7 in cancer cells could induce a reverse effect, indicating their therapeutic values in developing novel strategies for cancer treatment. Here, we will overview the regulatory mechanisms and functions of Lin28 in cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Wang
- Department of General Surgery and Translational Medicine Center, Nanjing Medical University Affiliated Wuxi Second Hospital, Wuxi, 214002, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qin Zhao
- Department of General Surgery and Translational Medicine Center, Nanjing Medical University Affiliated Wuxi Second Hospital, Wuxi, 214002, Jiangsu, China
| | - Kaiyuan Deng
- Department of General Surgery and Translational Medicine Center, Nanjing Medical University Affiliated Wuxi Second Hospital, Wuxi, 214002, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaoqiang Guo
- Department of General Surgery and Translational Medicine Center, Nanjing Medical University Affiliated Wuxi Second Hospital, Wuxi, 214002, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jiazeng Xia
- Department of General Surgery and Translational Medicine Center, Nanjing Medical University Affiliated Wuxi Second Hospital, Wuxi, 214002, Jiangsu, China.
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23
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Ma NKL, Lim JK, Leong MF, Sandanaraj E, Ang BT, Tang C, Wan ACA. Collaboration of 3D context and extracellular matrix in the development of glioma stemness in a 3D model. Biomaterials 2015; 78:62-73. [PMID: 26684838 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Revised: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
A hierarchy of cellular stemness exists in certain cancers, and any successful strategy to treat such cancers would have to eliminate the self-renewing tumor-initiating cells at the apex of the hierarchy. The cellular microenvironment, in particular the extracellular matrix (ECM), is believed to have a role in regulating stemness. In this work, U251 glioblastoma cells are cultured on electrospun polystyrene (ESPS) scaffolds coated with an array of 7 laminin isoforms to provide a 3D model for stem cell-related genes and proteins expression studies. We observed collaboration between 3D context and laminins in promoting glioma stemness. Depending on the laminin isoform presented, U251 cells cultured on ESPS scaffolds (3D) exhibited increased expression of stemness markers compared to those cultured on tissue culture polystyrene (2D). Our results indicate the influence of 3D (versus 2D) context on integrin expression, specifically, the upregulation of the laminin-binding integrins alpha 6 and beta 4. By a colony forming assay, we showed enhanced clonogenicity of cells grown on ESPS scaffolds in collaboration with laminins 411, 421, 511 and 521. Evaluation of patient glioma databases demonstrated significant enrichment of integrin and ECM pathway networks in tumors of worse prognosis, consistent with our observations. The present results demonstrate how 3D versus 2D context profoundly affects ECM signaling, leading to stemness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina K L Ma
- Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, 31 Biopolis Way, The Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore
| | - Jia Kai Lim
- Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, 31 Biopolis Way, The Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore
| | - Meng Fatt Leong
- Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, 31 Biopolis Way, The Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore; School of Applied Science, Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore 529757, Singapore
| | - Edwin Sandanaraj
- Department of Research, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore; Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 117609, Singapore; School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Beng Ti Ang
- Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore 117609, Singapore; Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore; Department of Neurosurgery, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore; Duke-National University of Singapore Graduate Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Carol Tang
- Department of Research, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore; Duke-National University of Singapore Graduate Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore; Division of Medical Sciences, Humphrey Oei Institute of Cancer Research, National Cancer Centre, Singapore 169610, Singapore
| | - Andrew C A Wan
- Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, 31 Biopolis Way, The Nanos, Singapore 138669, Singapore.
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24
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Guo CX, Wang J, Huang LH, Li JG, Chen X. Impact of single-nucleotide polymorphisms on radiation pneumonitis in cancer patients. Mol Clin Oncol 2015; 4:3-10. [PMID: 26870349 DOI: 10.3892/mco.2015.666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Radiation pneumonitis (RP) is one of the most important dose-limiting toxicities in the radiotherapy of thoracic tumors, which reduces the rate of local tumor control and overall survival and severely affects the patients' quality of life. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have recently attracted increasing attention as biomarkers for predicting the development of RP. SNPs in inflammation-related, DNA repair-related, stress response-related and angiogenesis-related genes were proved to be associated with RP, with different underlying mechanisms. Radiogenomics focuses on the differences in radiosensitivity caused by gene sequence variation, which may prove helpful in investigating the abovementioned associations. In this review, we aimed to investigate the associations between RP and SNPs reported in recent studies and highlight the main content and prospects of radiogenomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Xian Guo
- Center of Clinical Pharmacology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
| | - Jing Wang
- Medical College of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, P.R. China; Department of Radiation Oncology, Jiangxi Cancer Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330029, P.R. China
| | - Li-Hua Huang
- Center for Experimental Medical Research, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
| | - Jin-Gao Li
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Jiangxi Cancer Hospital, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330029, P.R. China
| | - Xiang Chen
- Department of Dermatology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410078, P.R. China
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25
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Abstract
LIN28 is an RNA-binding protein that is best known for its roles in promoting pluripotency via regulation of the microRNA let-7. However, recent studies have uncovered new roles for LIN28 and have revealed how it functions, suggesting that it is more than just a regulator of miRNA biogenesis. Together, these findings imply a new paradigm for LIN28 - as a gatekeeper molecule that regulates the transition between pluripotency and committed cell lineages, in both let-7-dependent and let-7-independent manners. Here, we provide an overview of LIN28 function in development and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Tsialikas
- Department of Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rowan University School of Osteopathic Medicine, Stratford, NJ 08084, USA
| | - Jennifer Romer-Seibert
- Department of Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rowan University School of Osteopathic Medicine, Stratford, NJ 08084, USA
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26
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Santos MCT, Silva PBG, Rodini CO, Furukawa G, Marco Antonio DS, Zanotto-Filho A, Moreira JCF, Okamoto OK. Embryonic Stem Cell-Related Protein L1TD1 Is Required for Cell Viability, Neurosphere Formation, and Chemoresistance in Medulloblastoma. Stem Cells Dev 2015; 24:2700-8. [PMID: 26159230 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2015.0052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Misexpression of stem cell-related genes may occur in some cancer cells, influencing patient's prognosis. This is the case of medulloblastoma, a common and clinically challenging malignant tumor of the central nervous system, where expression of the pluripotency factor, OCT4, is correlated with poor survival. A downstream target of OCT4, L1TD1 (LINE-1 type transposase domain-containing protein 1 family member), encodes a novel embryonic stem cell (ESC)-related protein involved in pluripotency and self-renewal of ESCs. L1TD1 is still poorly characterized and its expression pattern and function in cancer cells are virtually unknown. Although normally restricted to non-neoplastic undifferentiated cells and germ cells, we found that high L1TD1 expression also occurs in medulloblastoma cells, reaching levels similar to those found in ESCs, and is correlated with poor prognosis. Conversely to what is reported during normal cell differentiation, when differentiated cells remain healthy, despite L1TD1 downregulation, depletion of L1TD1 protein levels by targeted gene silencing significantly reduced medulloblastoma cell viability, inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis. More strikingly, L1TD1 depletion downregulated expression of the neural stem cell markers, CD133 and Nestin, inhibited neurosphere generation capability, and sensitized medulloblastoma cells to temozolomide and cisplatin, two chemotherapeutic agents of clinical relevance in medulloblastoma treatment. Our findings provide insights about the contribution of pluripotency-related genes to a more aggressive tumor phenotype through their involvement in the acquisition of stem-like properties by cancer cells and point out L1TD1 as a potential therapeutic target in malignant brain tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Márcia Cristina Teixeira Santos
- 1 Human Genome and Stem Cell Research Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutionary Biology, Biosciences Institute, University of São Paulo , São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Benites Gonçalves Silva
- 1 Human Genome and Stem Cell Research Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutionary Biology, Biosciences Institute, University of São Paulo , São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carolina Oliveira Rodini
- 1 Human Genome and Stem Cell Research Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutionary Biology, Biosciences Institute, University of São Paulo , São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Furukawa
- 1 Human Genome and Stem Cell Research Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutionary Biology, Biosciences Institute, University of São Paulo , São Paulo, Brazil
| | - David Santos Marco Antonio
- 1 Human Genome and Stem Cell Research Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutionary Biology, Biosciences Institute, University of São Paulo , São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alfeu Zanotto-Filho
- 2 Department of Biochemistry, Oxidative Stress Research Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul , Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - José C F Moreira
- 2 Department of Biochemistry, Oxidative Stress Research Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul , Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Oswaldo Keith Okamoto
- 1 Human Genome and Stem Cell Research Center, Department of Genetics and Evolutionary Biology, Biosciences Institute, University of São Paulo , São Paulo, Brazil
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27
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Wang T, Wang G, Hao D, Liu X, Wang D, Ning N, Li X. Aberrant regulation of the LIN28A/LIN28B and let-7 loop in human malignant tumors and its effects on the hallmarks of cancer. Mol Cancer 2015; 14:125. [PMID: 26123544 PMCID: PMC4512107 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-015-0402-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2015] [Accepted: 06/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA binding proteins (RBPs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) are two of the most important post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression, and their aberrant expression contributes to the development of human malignancies. Let-7, one of the most well-known tumor suppressors, is frequently down-regulated in a variety of human cancers. The RBP LIN28A/LIN28B, a direct target of the let-7 family of miRNAs, is an inhibitor of let-7 biogenesis and is frequently up-regulated in cancers. Aberrant regulation of the LIN28A/LIN28B and let-7 loop in human malignant tumors is reportedly involved in cancer development, contributing to cellular proliferation, cell death resistance, angiogenesis, metastasis, metabolism reprogramming, tumor-associated inflammation, genome instability, acquiring immortality and evading immune destruction. In this review, we summarized the mechanisms of LIN28A/LIN28B and let-7 loop aberrant regulation in human cancer and discussed the roles and potential mechanisms of the LIN28A/LIN28B and let-7 loop in regulating the hallmarks of cancer. The crosstalk between LIN28A/LIN28B and let-7 loop and certain oncogenes (such as MYC, RAS, PI3K/AKT, NF-κB and β-catenin) in regulating hallmarks of cancer has also been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianzhen Wang
- Department of Pathology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China.
| | - Guangyu Wang
- Department of Gastrointestinal Medical Oncology, The Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China.
| | - Dapeng Hao
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China.
| | - Xi Liu
- Center of Cardiovascular, Inner Mongolia People's Hospital, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China.
| | - Dong Wang
- College of Bioinformatics Science and Technology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China.
| | - Ning Ning
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, International Hospital of Pecking University, Beijing, China.
| | - Xiaobo Li
- Department of Pathology, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China.
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RNA-Binding Protein Musashi1 Is a Central Regulator of Adhesion Pathways in Glioblastoma. Mol Cell Biol 2015; 35:2965-78. [PMID: 26100017 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00410-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 06/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The conserved RNA-binding protein Musashi1 (MSI1) has emerged as a key oncogenic factor in numerous solid tumors, including glioblastoma. However, its mechanism of action has not yet been established comprehensively. To identify its target genes comprehensively and determine the main routes by which it influences glioblastoma phenotypes, we conducted individual-nucleotide resolution cross-linking and immunoprecipitation (iCLIP) experiments. We confirmed that MSI1 has a preference for UAG sequences contained in a particular structural context, especially in 3' untranslated regions. Although numerous binding sites were also identified in intronic sequences, our RNA transcriptome sequencing analysis does not favor the idea that MSI1 is a major regulator of splicing in glioblastoma cells. MSI1 target mRNAs encode proteins that function in multiple pathways of cell proliferation and cell adhesion. Since these associations indicate potentially new roles for MSI1, we investigated its impact on glioblastoma cell adhesion, morphology, migration, and invasion. These processes are known to underpin the spread and relapse of glioblastoma, in contrast to other tumors where metastasis is the main driver of recurrence and progression.
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29
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Zhang X, Kiang KM, Zhang GP, Leung GK. Long Non-Coding RNAs Dysregulation and Function in Glioblastoma Stem Cells. Noncoding RNA 2015; 1:69-86. [PMID: 29861416 PMCID: PMC5932540 DOI: 10.3390/ncrna1010069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), the most common form of primary brain tumor, is highly resistant to current treatment paradigms and has a high rate of recurrence. Recent advances in the field of tumor-initiating cells suggest that glioblastoma stem cells (GSCs) may be responsible for GBM's rapid progression, treatment resistance, tumor recurrence and ultimately poor clinical prognosis. Understanding the biologically significant pathways that mediate GSC-specific characteristics offers promises in the development of novel biomarkers and therapeutics. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been increasingly implicated in the regulation of cancer cell biological behavior through various mechanisms. Initial studies strongly suggested that lncRNA expressions are highly dysregulated in GSCs and may play important roles in determining malignant phenotypes in GBM. Here, we review available evidence on aberrantly expressed lncRNAs identified by high throughput microarray profiling studies in GSCs. We also explore the potential functional pathways by analyzing their interactive proteins and miRNAs, with a view to shed lights on how this novel class of molecular candidates may mediate GSC maintenance and differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqin Zhang
- Department of Surgery, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Karrie Meiyee Kiang
- Department of Surgery, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Grace Pingde Zhang
- Department of Surgery, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Gilberto Kakit Leung
- Department of Surgery, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
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30
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Shenoy A, Danial M, Blelloch RH. Let-7 and miR-125 cooperate to prime progenitors for astrogliogenesis. EMBO J 2015; 34:1180-94. [PMID: 25715649 DOI: 10.15252/embj.201489504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The molecular basis of astrocyte differentiation and maturation is poorly understood. As microRNAs have important roles in cell fate transitions, we set out to study their function during the glial progenitor cell (GPC) to astrocyte transition. Inducible deletion of all canonical microRNAs in GPCs in vitro led to a block in the differentiation to astrocytes. In an unbiased screen, the reintroduction of let-7 and miR-125 families of microRNAs rescued differentiation. Let-7 and miR-125 shared many targets and functioned in parallel to JAK-STAT signaling, a known regulator of astrogliogenesis. While individual knockdown of shared targets did not rescue the differentiation phenotype in microRNA-deficient GPCs, overexpression of these targets in wild-type GPCs blocked differentiation. This finding supports the idea that microRNAs simultaneously suppress multiple mRNAs that inhibit differentiation. MicroRNA-regulated transcripts exhibited concordant changes during in vivo differentiation and were enriched for a gene set upregulated in glioblastomas, consistent with validity of using the in vitro model to study in vivo events. These findings provide insight into the microRNAs and the genes they regulate in this important cell fate transition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Archana Shenoy
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences and Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Muhammad Danial
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences and Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Robert H Blelloch
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Center for Reproductive Sciences and Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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31
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Tian Y, Hao S, Ye M, Zhang A, Nan Y, Wang G, Jia Z, Yu K, Guo L, Pu P, Huang Q, Zhong Y. MicroRNAs let-7b/i suppress human glioma cell invasion and migration by targeting IKBKE directly. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 458:307-12. [PMID: 25656572 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.01.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 01/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrated that IKBKE is overexpressed in human gliomas and that the downregulation of IKBKE markedly inhibits the proliferative and invasive abilities of glioma cells, which is consistent with the results reported by several different research groups. Therefore, IKBKE represents a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of glioma. In the present study, we verified that the microRNAs let-7b and let-7i target IKBKE through luciferase assays and found that let-7b/i mimics can knock down IKBKE and upregulate E-cadherin through western blot analysis. Moreover, the expression levels of let-7b/i were significantly lower in glioma cell lines than that in normal brain tissues, as determined by quantitative real-time PCR. Furthermore, let-7b/i inhibit the invasion and migration of glioma cells, as determined through wound healing and Transwell assays. The above-mentioned data suggest that let-7b/i inhibit the invasive ability of glioma cells by directly downregulating IKBKE and indirectly upregulating E-cadherin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Tian
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, People's Republic of China; Laboratory of Neuro-Oncology, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma, Variation and Regeneration, Ministry of Education and Tianjin Municipal Government, People's Republic of China
| | - Shaobo Hao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, People's Republic of China; Laboratory of Neuro-Oncology, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma, Variation and Regeneration, Ministry of Education and Tianjin Municipal Government, People's Republic of China
| | - Minhua Ye
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province 330006, People's Republic of China
| | - Anling Zhang
- Laboratory of Neuro-Oncology, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma, Variation and Regeneration, Ministry of Education and Tianjin Municipal Government, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Nan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangxiu Wang
- Laboratory of Neuro-Oncology, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma, Variation and Regeneration, Ministry of Education and Tianjin Municipal Government, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhifan Jia
- Laboratory of Neuro-Oncology, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma, Variation and Regeneration, Ministry of Education and Tianjin Municipal Government, People's Republic of China
| | - Kai Yu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, People's Republic of China
| | - Lianmei Guo
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, People's Republic of China
| | - Peiyu Pu
- Laboratory of Neuro-Oncology, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma, Variation and Regeneration, Ministry of Education and Tianjin Municipal Government, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiang Huang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yue Zhong
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, People's Republic of China.
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Sheng JD, Lei L, Wang AP. Role of Lin28A/B subtypes in apoptosis of hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2014; 22:3891-3897. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v22.i26.3891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To explore the role of Lin28A/B subtypes in apoptosis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells, and to analyze the mechanism of action of Lin28A/B in tumorigenesis of HCC.
METHODS: The mRNA and protein expression of Lin28A/B in HCC cells was detected by real-time PCR and Western blot. After siRNAs targeting Lin28A/B were transfected into HCC cells, the expression of Lin28A/B was detected by real-time PCR and Western blot, cell proliferation was assessed by MTT assay, and cell apoptosis was analyzed by FACS.
RESULTS: Real-time PCR showed that the expression of Lin28A/B mRNAs was up-regulated in HCC cells (P < 0.05; P < 0.01), and the up-regulation of Lin28B was more significant than that of Lin28A. Transfection of Lin28A/B siRNAs decreased the expression of Lin28A/B in HCC cells (P < 0.05). MTT assay revealed that Lin28A and Lin28B siRNAs significantly inhibited HCC cell proliferation (P < 0.05; P < 0.01) and promoted cell apoptosis (P < 0.05; P < 0.01). The effect of Lin28B siRNA on cell proliferation and apoptosis was stronger than that of Lin28A siRNA (P < 0.05).
CONCLUSION: Both Lin28A/B take part in the tumorigenesis of HCC. Lin28B may play a major role in HCC tumorigenesis, while Lin28A may play a subordinate role.
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