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Zhang S, Diao J, Huang J, Liu Y, Mo L. Do Human Assertions Really Adhere Strictly to Norms? The Effect of Threatening Content in Information on Personalized Norm Perception. Behav Sci (Basel) 2024; 14:625. [PMID: 39062448 DOI: 10.3390/bs14070625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2024] [Revised: 07/14/2024] [Accepted: 07/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Assertion is the use of declarative sentences to convey information, which necessitates meeting the "justified-belief norm" as a prerequisite. However, a significant amount of misinformation that did not meet these conditions was spread during COVID-19, leading to a reintroduction of the assertion norm. One possible hypothesis is that the threatening content of the misinformation influenced the perception of the norm. However, this remains unclear to researchers. Therefore, we conducted two experiments to investigate the effect of threatening content in information on individuals' perceptions of norms. In all the experiments, participants read backstories with and without threatening content, followed by answering assertion questions. It was observed that people do follow a looser assertion norm for information that contains threatening content. Additionally, further exploration revealed that threatening factors also lead individuals to more easily perceive the related content as truth and reduce the probability of being blamed. These two outcomes provide some explanation for the underlying mechanism of threatening factors' influence. The research results further refined the theory of assertion norms, offering a certain basis for information management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijia Zhang
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Jiangdong Diao
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Jiahui Huang
- Shenzhen Pingshan Foreign Languages Wenyuan School, Shenzhen 518000, China
| | - Yanchi Liu
- Key Laboratory of Chinese Learning and International Promotion, School of International Culture, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Lei Mo
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
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2
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Rodriguez-Pinto II, Rieucau G, Handegard NO, Boswell KM, Theobald JC. Environmental impact on visual perception modulates behavioral responses of schooling fish to looming predators. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb246665. [PMID: 38186295 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Aggregation in social fishes has evolved to improve safety from predators. The individual interaction mechanisms that govern collective behavior are determined by the sensory systems that translate environmental information into behavior. In dynamic environments, shifts in conditions impede effective visual sensory perception in fish schools, and may induce changes in the collective response. Here, we consider whether environmental conditions that affect visual contrast modulate the collective response of schools to looming predators. By using a virtual environment to simulate four contrast levels, we tested whether the collective state of minnow fish schools was modified in response to a looming optical stimulus. Our results indicate that fish swam slower and were less polarized in lower contrast conditions. Additionally, schooling metrics known to be regulated by non-visual sensory systems tended to correlate better when contrast decreased. Over the course of the escape response, schools remained tightly formed and retained the capability of transferring social information. We propose that when visual perception is compromised, the interaction rules governing collective behavior are likely to be modified to prioritize ancillary sensory information crucial to maximizing chance of escape. Our results imply that multiple sensory systems can integrate to control collective behavior in environments with unreliable visual information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan I Rodriguez-Pinto
- Institute of Environment, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33172, USA
| | | | | | - Kevin M Boswell
- Institute of Environment, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33172, USA
| | - Jamie C Theobald
- Institute of Environment, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33172, USA
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3
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Furuichi S, Kamimura Y, Suzuki M, Yukami R. Density-dependent attributes of schooling in small pelagic fishes. Naturwissenschaften 2022; 109:49. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-022-01819-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2022] [Revised: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Deng J, Liu D. Spontaneous response of a self-organized fish school to a predator. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2021; 16:046013. [PMID: 33930884 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/abfd7f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
While the collective movements of fish schools evading predators in nature are complex, they can be fundamentally represented by simplified mathematical models. Here we develop a numerical model, which considers self-propelled particles subject to phenomenological behavioural rules and the hydrodynamic interactions between individuals. We introduce a predator in this model, to study the spontaneous response of a group of simulated fish to the threat. A self-organized fish school with a milling pattern is considered, which was expected to be efficient to evade the threat of predators. Four different attack tactics are adopted by the predator. We find that the simulated fish form transiently smaller structures as some prey individuals split from the main group, but eventually they will re-organize, sometimes into sub groups when the simulated predator approaches the fish school unidirectionally or take a reciprocating action. As the predator is programmed to target the centroid, the school ends in a gradually enlarging circle. For the fourth tactic, as the predator chases its nearest prey, the fish school's response varies with the predator's delay factor. Moreover, the average speed of the group and the distance between individuals have also been studied, both demonstrating that the fish school is able to respond spontaneously to the predator's invasion. We demonstrate that the currently adopted model can predict prey-predator interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Department of Mechanics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Danshi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Department of Mechanics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, People's Republic of China
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5
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Rodriguez-Pinto II, Rieucau G, Handegard NO, Boswell KM. Environmental context elicits behavioural modification of collective state in schooling fish. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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6
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Romenskyy M, Herbert-Read JE, Ioannou CC, Szorkovszky A, Ward AJW, Sumpter DJT. Quantifying the structure and dynamics of fish shoals under predation threat in three dimensions. Behav Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arz197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Detailed quantifications of how predators and their grouping prey interact in three dimensions (3D) remain rare. Here we record the structure and dynamics of fish shoals (Pseudomugil signifer) in 3D both with and without live predators (Philypnodon grandiceps) under controlled laboratory conditions. Shoals adopted two distinct types of shoal structure: “sphere-like” geometries at depth and flat “carpet-like” structures at the water’s surface, with shoals becoming more compact in both horizontal and vertical planes in the presence of a predator. The predators actively stalked and attacked the prey, with attacks being initiated when the shoals were not in their usual configurations. These attacks caused the shoals to break apart, but shoal reformation was rapid and involved individuals adjusting their positions in both horizontal and vertical dimensions. Our analyses revealed that targeted prey were more isolated from other conspecifics, and were closer in terms of distance and direction to the predator compared to non-targeted prey. Moreover, which prey were targeted could largely be identified based on individuals’ positions from a single plane. This highlights that previously proposed 2D theoretical models and their assumptions appear valid when considering how predators target groups in 3D. Our work provides experimental, and not just anecdotal, support for classic theoretical predictions and also lends new insights into predatory–prey interactions in three-dimensional environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maksym Romenskyy
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - James E Herbert-Read
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Biology, Aquatic Ecology Unit, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | | | | | - Ashley J W Ward
- School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Langenhof MR, Komdeur J. Why and how the early-life environment affects development of coping behaviours. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2018; 72:34. [PMID: 29449757 PMCID: PMC5805793 DOI: 10.1007/s00265-018-2452-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Revised: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the ways in which individuals cope with threats, respond to challenges, make use of opportunities and mediate the harmful effects of their surroundings is important for predicting their ability to function in a rapidly changing world. Perhaps one of the most essential drivers of coping behaviour of adults is the environment experienced during their early-life development. Although the study of coping, defined as behaviours displayed in response to environmental challenges, has a long and rich research history in biology, recent literature has repeatedly pointed out that the processes through which coping behaviours develop in individuals are still largely unknown. In this review, we make a move towards integrating ultimate and proximate lines of coping behaviour research. After broadly defining coping behaviours (1), we review why, from an evolutionary perspective, the development of coping has become tightly linked to the early-life environment (2), which relevant developmental processes are most important in creating coping behaviours adjusted to the early-life environment (3), which influences have been shown to impact those developmental processes (4) and what the adaptive significance of intergenerational transmission of coping behaviours is, in the context of behavioural adaptations to a fast changing world (5). Important concepts such as effects of parents, habitat, nutrition, social group and stress are discussed using examples from empirical studies on mammals, fish, birds and other animals. In the discussion, we address important problems that arise when studying the development of coping behaviours and suggest solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Rohaa Langenhof
- Behavioural Physiology and Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Jan Komdeur
- Behavioural Physiology and Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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Effects on schooling function in mackerel of sub-lethal capture related stressors: Crowding and hypoxia. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0190259. [PMID: 29284035 PMCID: PMC5746257 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The selectivity of fishing gears with respect to fish species and size is important, both for fisheries management and fishing operations. Purse seining is an efficient, environmentally friendly fish capture methodology generally targeting single species aggregations, but once a fish school has been selected and surrounded by the seine, there is no selections for individual size, species or catch quantity. A common practice for evaluating the catch is to haul the seine to a point where physical samples or inspections of catch composition can be made. The release process is called slipping and may lead to mortality in the released fish. The objective of this study was to simulate a crowding situation and investigate how the behaviour was affected in response to increased fish density, decreased oxygen levels, or a combination of the two, and to see if there is a behavioural measure that can be used to set safe crowding limits. The experiment was conducted on Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) held in net pens. The volume of the net pen was reduced to increase fish density, and a tarpaulin bag was wrapped around the pen to reduce the oxygen levels. Oxygen, fish density and space occupancy was monitored during the experiment, and the behavioural reactions was assessed using an imaging sonar. The main result was that the schooling function, i.e. the response to a predator model, was significantly reduced during crowding but not in response to hypoxia. There were some indications of a slow recovery of the function post-treatment. We conclude that crowding causes behavioural responses that occur before densities that induce fish mortality. Consequently, there is a behavioural response that could be used as a proxy for setting safe crowding limits.
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Demšar J, Štrumbelj E, Lebar Bajec I. A Balanced Mixture of Antagonistic Pressures Promotes the Evolution of Parallel Movement. Sci Rep 2016; 6:39428. [PMID: 27995967 PMCID: PMC5171647 DOI: 10.1038/srep39428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
A common hypothesis about the origins of collective behaviour suggests that animals might live and move in groups to increase their chances of surviving predator attacks. This hypothesis is supported by several studies that use computational models to simulate natural evolution. These studies, however, either tune an ad-hoc model to 'reproduce' collective behaviour, or concentrate on a single type of predation pressure, or infer the emergence of collective behaviour from an increase in prey density. In nature, prey are often targeted by multiple predator species simultaneously and this might have played a pivotal role in the evolution of collective behaviour. We expand on previous research by using an evolutionary rule-based system to simulate the evolution of prey behaviour when prey are subject to multiple simultaneous predation pressures. We analyse the evolved behaviour via prey density, polarization, and angular momentum. Our results suggest that a mixture of antagonistic external pressures that simultaneously steer prey towards grouping and dispersing might be required for prey individuals to evolve dynamic parallel movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jure Demšar
- Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Erik Štrumbelj
- Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Iztok Lebar Bajec
- Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Kruusmaa M, Rieucau G, Montoya JCC, Markna R, Handegard NO. Collective responses of a large mackerel school depend on the size and speed of a robotic fish but not on tail motion. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2016; 11:056020. [PMID: 27710926 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/11/5/056020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
So far, actuated fish models have been used to study animal interactions in small-scale controlled experiments. This study, conducted in a semi-controlled setting, investigates robot5 interactions with a large wild-caught marine fish school (∼3000 individuals) in their natural social environment. Two towed fish robots were used to decouple size, tail motion and speed in a series of sea-cage experiments. Using high-resolution imaging sonar and sonar-video blind scoring, we monitored and classified the school's collective reaction towards the fish robots as attraction or avoidance. We found that two key releasers-the size and the speed of the robotic fish-were responsible for triggering either evasive reactions or following responses. At the same time, we found fish reactions to the tail motion to be insignificant. The fish evaded a fast-moving robot even if it was small. However, mackerels following propensity was greater towards a slow small robot. When moving slowly, the larger robot triggered significantly more avoidance responses than a small robot. Our results suggest that the collective responses of a large school exposed to a robotic fish could be manipulated by tuning two principal releasers-size and speed. These results can help to design experimental methods for in situ observations of wild fish schools or to develop underwater robots for guiding and interacting with free-ranging aggregated aquatic organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarja Kruusmaa
- Centre for Biorobotics, Tallinn University of Technology, Akadeemia tee 15A, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
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12
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Rieucau G, Holmin AJ, Castillo JC, Couzin ID, Handegard NO. School level structural and dynamic adjustments to risk promote information transfer and collective evasion in herring. Anim Behav 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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13
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Rieucau G, Sivle LD, Olav Handegard N. Herring perform stronger collective evasive reactions when previously exposed to killer whales calls. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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14
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Yorzinski JL, Platt ML, Adams GK. Eye-spots in Lepidoptera attract attention in humans. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2015; 2:150155. [PMID: 26543589 PMCID: PMC4632553 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.150155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Many prey species exhibit defensive traits to decrease their chances of predation. Conspicuous eye-spots, concentric rings of contrasting colours, are one type of defensive trait that some species exhibit to deter predators. We examined the function of eye-spots in Lepidoptera to determine whether they are effective at deterring predators because they resemble eyes ('eye mimicry hypothesis') or are highly salient ('conspicuous signal hypothesis'). We recorded the gaze behaviour of men and women as they viewed natural images of butterflies and moths as well as images in which the eye-spots of these insects were modified. The eye-spots were modified by removing them, scrambling their colours, or replacing them with elliptical or triangular shapes that had either dark or light centres. Participants were generally more likely to look at, spend more time looking at and be faster to first fixate the eye-spots of butterflies and moths that were natural compared with ones that were modified, including the elliptical eye-spots with dark centres that most resembled eyes as well as the scrambled eye-spots that had the same contrast as the natural eye-spots. Participants were most likely to look at eye-spots that were numerous, had a large surface area and were located close to the insects' heads. Participants' pupils were larger when viewing eye-spots compared with the rest of the insects' body, suggesting a greater arousal when viewing eye-spots. Our results provide some support for the conspicuous signal hypothesis (and minimal support for the eye mimicry hypothesis) and suggest that eye-spots may be effective at deterring predators because they are highly conspicuous signals that draw attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L. Yorzinski
- Duke Institute for Brain Sciences and Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Michael L. Platt
- Duke Institute for Brain Sciences and Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Geoffrey K. Adams
- Duke Institute for Brain Sciences and Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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Rieucau G, De Robertis A, Boswell KM, Handegard NO. School density affects the strength of collective avoidance responses in wild-caught Atlantic herring Clupea harengus: a simulated predator encounter experiment. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2014; 85:1650-1664. [PMID: 25243659 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.12520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 08/01/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
An experimental study in a semi-controlled environment was conducted to examine whether school density in wild-caught Atlantic herring Clupea harengus affects the strength of their collective escape behaviours. Using acoustics, the anti-predator diving responses of C. harengus in two schools that differed in density were quantified by exposing them to a simulated threat. Due to logistical restrictions, the first fish was tested in a low-density school condition (four trials; packing density = 1.5 fish m(-3); c. 6000 fish) followed by fish in a high-density school condition (five trials; packing density = 16 fish m(-3); c. 60 000 fish). The C. harengus in a high-density school exhibited stronger collective diving avoidance responses to the simulated predators than fish in the lower-density school. The findings suggest that the density (and thus the internal organization) of a fish school affects the strength of collective anti-predatory responses, and the extent to which information about predation risk is transferred through the C. harengus school. Therefore, the results challenge the common notion that information transfer within animal groups may not depend on group size and density.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Rieucau
- Institute of Marine Research, P. O. Box 1870 Nordnes, 5817 Bergen, Norway
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