Molecular cloning, overexpression and characterization of a novel water channel protein from Rhodobacter sphaeroides

Entropic barrier of water permeation through single-file channels

Facilitated water permeation through narrow biological channels is fundamental for all forms of life. Despite its significance in health and disease as well as for biotechnological applications, the energetics of water permeation are still elusive. Gibbs free energy of activation is composed of an enthalpic and an entropic component. Whereas the enthalpic contribution is readily accessible via temperature dependent water permeability measurements, estimation of the entropic contribution requires information on the temperature dependence of the rate of water permeation. Here, we estimate, by means of accurate activation energy measurements of water permeation through Aquaporin-1 and by determining the accurate single channel permeability, the entropic barrier of water permeation through a narrow biological channel. Thereby the calculated value for [Formula: see text] = 2.01 ± 0.82 J/(mol·K) links the activation energy of 3.75 ± 0.16 kcal/mol with its efficient water conduction rate of ~10¹⁰ water molecules/second. This is a first step in understanding the energetic contributions in various biological and artificial channels exhibiting vastly different pore geometries.

Comparison of ion selectivities of nitrite channel NirC and water channel aquaporin

nirC gene coding for the nitrite channel of E. coli K12 was cloned into the pET28a vector and expressed in E. coli BL21 cells. 28.5 kDa NirC monomer was purified from membrane components of E. coli. Selectivity of NirC for different ions including nitrite, nitrate, sulfate, formate, and acetate anions, and a divalent cation, magnesium, was compared with that of bacterial aquaporin from Halomonas elongata. Water and ion permeability values were determined by measuring the light scattering rates of proteoliposomes containing NirC and aquaporins during their water loss and gain. NirC shows a selective permeability to nitrite and is more resistant to the entry of other anions as compared to aquaporin. The single channel permeability of NirC for nitrite is about 10-fold that of a single aquaporin channel. Both aquaporin and NirC channel proteins were impermeable to MgCl₂ and (NH₄)₂SO₄ and their permeability to other tested ions was remarkably lower as compared to nitrite ions. The study also presents the 3D model and channel characteristics of NirC. The translocation channel of E. coli NirC is determined to be larger, and its length is shorter than aquaporin channels. Although the NirC channel throat is more hydrophobic than aquaporin, its water permeability is almost equal to that of aquaporin. The hydrophobic nature of the NirC channel might play an important role in the selective permeability of the channel for nitrite ions.

Micropollutant removal capacity and stability of aquaporin incorporated biomimetic thin-film composite membranes

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Aquaporins increase the micropollutant removal capacity of TFC nanofiltration membranes.

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Biomimetic membrane prepared with Halomonas elongata aquaporin is applicable for micropollutant rejection.

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Aquaporin incorporated membrane is stable for six months period.

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Type of aquaporin and pore size of the membrane affect micropollutant rejection rates.

Aquaporin incorporated nanofiltration membranes have high potential for future applications on separation processes. In this study, performance of biomimetic thin-film composite membranes containing Halomonas elongata and Escherichia coli aquaporins with different affinity tags for the removal of micropollutants was investigated.% rejection of the membranes for atrazine, terbutryn, triclosan, and diuron varied between 66.7% and 90.3% depending on the type of aquaporin and micropollutant. The highest removal rate was achieved with a membrane containing H. elongata aquaporin for atrazine and terbutryn which have methyl branching in their structure. Electrostatic interactions between micropollutants, thin-film layer of the membrane, and tags of aquaporins may also play important role in rejection of micropollutants. Stability experiments showed that biomimetic membranes can be used for six months period without a remarkable decrease in% rejection. Membrane used 24 times for atrazine removal for a year period lost most of its ability to repel atrazine.

Liposome-based measurement of light-driven chloride transport kinetics of halorhodopsin

We report a simple and direct fluorimetric vesicle-based method for measuring the transport rate of the light-driven ions pumps as specifically applied to the chloride pump, halorhodopsin, from Natronomonas pharaonis (pHR). Previous measurements were cell-based and methods to determine average single channel permeability challenging. We used a water-in-oil emulsion method for directional pHR reconstitution into two different types of vesicles: lipid vesicles and asymmetric lipid-block copolymer vesicles. We then used stopped-flow experiments combined with fluorescence correlation spectroscopy to determine per protein Cl- transport rates. We obtained a Cl^- transport rate of 442 (±17.7) Cl^-/protein/s in egg phosphatidyl choline (PC) lipid vesicles and 413 (±26) Cl^-/protein/s in hybrid block copolymer/lipid (BCP/PC) vesicles with polybutadine-polyethylene oxide (PB₁₂PEO₈) on the outer leaflet and PC in the inner leaflet at a photon flux of 1450 photons/protein/s. Normalizing to a per photon basis, this corresponds to 0.30 (±0.07) Cl^-/photon and 0.28 (±0.04) Cl^-/photon for pure PC and BCP/PC hybrid vesicles respectively, both of which are in agreement with recently reported turnover of ~500 Cl^-/protein/s from flash photolysis experiments and with voltage-clamp measurements of 0.35 (±0.16) Cl^-/photon in pHR-expressing oocytes as well as with a pHR quantum efficiency of ~30%.

Stopped-flow Light Scattering Analysis of Red Blood Cell Glycerol Permeability

Stopped-Flow Light Scattering (SFLS) is a method devised to analyze the kinetics of fast chemical reactions that result in a significant change of the average molecular weight and/or in the shape of the reaction substrates. Several modifications of the original stopped-flow system have been made leading to a significant extension of its technical applications. One of these modifications allows the biophysical characterization of the water and solute permeability of biological and artificial membranes. Here, we describe a protocol of SFLS to measure the glycerol permeability of isolated human red blood cells (RBCs) and evaluate the pharmacokinetics properties (selectivity and potency) of isoform-specific inhibitors of AQP3, AQP7 and AQP9, three mammalian aquaglyceroporins allowing transport of glycerol across membranes. Suspensions of RBCs (1% hematocrit) are exposed to an inwardly directed gradient of 100 mM glycerol in a SFLS apparatus at 20 °C and the resulting changes in scattered light intensity are recorded at a monochromatic wavelength of 530 nm for 120 s. The SFLS apparatus is set up to have a dead time of 1.6-ms and 99% mixing efficiency in less than 1 ms. Data are fitted to a single exponential function and the related time constant (τ, seconds) of the cell-swelling phase of light scattering corresponding to the osmotic movement of water that accompanies the entry of glycerol into erythrocytes is measured. The coefficient of glycerol permeability ( P_gly , cm/s) of RBCs is calculated with the following equation: P_gly = 1/[(S/V)τ] where τ (s) is the fitted exponential time constant and S/V is the surface-to-volume ratio (cm^-1) of the analyzed RBC specimen. Pharmacokinetics of the isoform-specific inhibitors of AQP3, AQP7 and AQP9 are assessed by evaluating the extent of RBC P_gly values resulting after the exposure to serial concentrations of the blockers.

Affinity tag effect on the salt rejection potential of Halomonas elongata aquaporin incorporated in thin film nanocomposite membrane

In this study, effect of affinity tags, Histidine (His) and Glutathione-S-Transferase (GST), on the activity of halophilic aquaporin was analyzed. The gene coding for H. elongata aquaporin was cloned into pET28a vector and expressed in E. coli BL21 successfully. Stopped flow light scattering measurements showed that His-tagged aquaporin is functional. The difference in the filtration parameters caused by affinity tags were determined by using thin film composite nano-filtration (NFC) membranes prepared with the aquaporins. At 100 mM salt concentration, water permeability (L/m².h) and the % salt rejection of NFC membranes produced with the His-tagged aquaporin was found to be higher than that of the membrane with GST-tagged aquaporin. Salt rejection of His-tagged aquaporin-membrane was found to be 53% with a lower solute permeability value (B). Use of short affinity tag (His tag) for cloning resulted in higher solute rejection ability of TFC membranes prepared with H. elongata aquaporins.

Artificial water channels enable fast and selective water permeation through water-wire networks

Artificial water channels are synthetic molecules that aim to mimic the structural and functional features of biological water channels (aquaporins). Here we report on a cluster-forming organic nanoarchitecture, peptide-appended hybrid[4]arene (PAH[4]), as a new class of artificial water channels. Fluorescence experiments and simulations demonstrated that PAH[4]s can form, through lateral diffusion, clusters in lipid membranes that provide synergistic membrane-spanning paths for a rapid and selective water permeation through water-wire networks. Quantitative transport studies revealed that PAH[4]s can transport >109 water molecules per second per molecule, which is comparable to aquaporin water channels. The performance of these channels exceeds the upper bound limit of current desalination membranes by a factor of ~104, as illustrated by the water/NaCl permeability-selectivity trade-off curve. PAH[4]'s unique properties of a high water/solute permselectivity via cooperative water-wire formation could usher in an alternative design paradigm for permeable membrane materials in separations, energy production and barrier applications.

PoreDesigner for tuning solute selectivity in a robust and highly permeable outer membrane pore

Monodispersed angstrom-size pores embedded in a suitable matrix are promising for highly selective membrane-based separations. They can provide substantial energy savings in water treatment and small molecule bioseparations. Such pores present as membrane proteins (chiefly aquaporin-based) are commonplace in biological membranes but difficult to implement in synthetic industrial membranes and have modest selectivity without tunable selectivity. Here we present PoreDesigner, a design workflow to redesign the robust beta-barrel Outer Membrane Protein F as a scaffold to access three specific pore designs that exclude solutes larger than sucrose (>360 Da), glucose (>180 Da), and salt (>58 Da) respectively. PoreDesigner also enables us to design any specified pore size (spanning 3-10 Å), engineer its pore profile, and chemistry. These redesigned pores may be ideal for conducting sub-nm aqueous separations with permeabilities exceeding those of classical biological water channels, aquaporins, by more than an order of magnitude at over 10 billion water molecules per channel per second.

Bioinspired polymer vesicles and membranes for biological and medical applications

Biological membranes play an essential role in living organisms by providing stable and functional compartments, supporting signalling and selective transport. Combining synthetic polymer membranes with biological molecules promises to be an effective strategy to mimic the functions of cell membranes and apply them in artificial systems.

Aquaporin-Based Biomimetic Polymeric Membranes: Approaches and Challenges

In recent years, aquaporin biomimetic membranes (ABMs) for water separation have gained considerable interest. Although the first ABMs are commercially available, there are still many challenges associated with further ABM development. Here, we discuss the interplay of the main components of ABMs: aquaporin proteins (AQPs), block copolymers for AQP reconstitution, and polymer-based supporting structures. First, we briefly cover challenges and review recent developments in understanding the interplay between AQP and block copolymers. Second, we review some experimental characterization methods for investigating AQP incorporation including freeze-fracture transmission electron microscopy, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, stopped-flow light scattering, and small-angle X-ray scattering. Third, we focus on recent efforts in embedding reconstituted AQPs in membrane designs that are based on conventional thin film interfacial polymerization techniques. Finally, we describe some new developments in interfacial polymerization using polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane cages for increasing the physical and chemical durability of thin film composite membranes.

Highly permeable artificial water channels that can self-assemble into two-dimensional arrays

Bioinspired artificial water channels aim to combine the high permeability and selectivity of biological aquaporin (AQP) water channels with chemical stability. Here, we carefully characterized a class of artificial water channels, peptide-appended pillar[5]arenes (PAPs). The average single-channel osmotic water permeability for PAPs is 1.0(± 0.3) × 10(-14) cm(3)/s or 3.5(± 1.0) × 10(8) water molecules per s, which is in the range of AQPs (3.4 ∼ 40.3 × 10(8) water molecules per s) and their current synthetic analogs, carbon nanotubes (CNTs, 9.0 × 10(8) water molecules per s). This permeability is an order of magnitude higher than first-generation artificial water channels (20 to ∼ 10(7) water molecules per s). Furthermore, within lipid bilayers, PAP channels can self-assemble into 2D arrays. Relevant to permeable membrane design, the pore density of PAP channel arrays (∼ 2.6 × 10(5) pores per μm(2)) is two orders of magnitude higher than that of CNT membranes (0.1 ∼ 2.5 × 10(3) pores per μm(2)). PAP channels thus combine the advantages of biological channels and CNTs and improve upon them through their relatively simple synthesis, chemical stability, and propensity to form arrays.

Dynamics of Membrane Proteins within Synthetic Polymer Membranes with Large Hydrophobic Mismatch

The functioning of biological membrane proteins (MPs) within synthetic block copolymer membranes is an intriguing phenomenon that is believed to offer great potential for applications in life and medical sciences and engineering. The question why biological MPs are able to function in this completely artificial environment is still unresolved by any experimental data. Here, we have analyzed the lateral diffusion properties of different sized MPs within poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS)-containing amphiphilic block copolymer membranes of membrane thicknesses between 9 and 13 nm, which results in a hydrophobic mismatch between the membrane thickness and the size of the proteins of 3.3-7.1 nm (3.5-5 times). We show that the high flexibility of PDMS, which provides membrane fluidities similar to phospholipid bilayers, is the key-factor for MP incorporation.

Selecting analytical tools for characterization of polymersomes in aqueous solution

We present 17 techniques to analyze polymersomes, in terms of their size, bilayer properties, elastic properties or surface charge.