Effects of vehicle speed on flight initiation by Turkey vultures: implications for bird-vehicle collisions

Use of a behavioural response method to assess the risk of collision between migrating humpback whales and vessels

With the substantial increase in many large whale populations, paired with the rise in global shipping and recreational vessel activity, it is not surprising that negative interactions between whales and vessels are increasing. Here, the collision risk between migrating groups of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) and vessels was assessed by determining if changes in their movement trajectories in response to an oncoming vessel translated to vessel avoidance. It was assumed groups would implement an escape response strategy, using cues such as the vessel speed, trajectory, proximity, and received level of noise to inform their response magnitude. However, many groups were unresponsive to an approaching vessel such that the vessel had to take evasive action. This study shows that humpback whales are not likely to take sufficient avoidance action when there is a potential for a vessel and whale to collide. Therefore, when developing a risk management strategy, mitigation measures that reduce the encounter rate between whales and vessels are likely to be the most effective.

Can we use antipredator behavior theory to predict wildlife responses to high-speed vehicles?

Animals seem to rely on antipredator behavior to avoid vehicle collisions. There is an extensive body of antipredator behavior theory that have been used to predict the distance/time animals should escape from predators. These models have also been used to guide empirical research on escape behavior from vehicles. However, little is known as to whether antipredator behavior models are appropriate to apply to an approaching high-speed vehicle scenario. We addressed this gap by (a) providing an overview of the main hypotheses and predictions of different antipredator behavior models via a literature review, (b) exploring whether these models can generate quantitative predictions on escape distance when parameterized with empirical data from the literature, and (c) evaluating their sensitivity to vehicle approach speed using a simulation approach wherein we assessed model performance based on changes in effect size with variations in the slope of the flight initiation distance (FID) vs. approach speed relationship. The slope of the FID vs. approach speed relationship was then related back to three different behavioral rules animals may rely on to avoid approaching threats: the spatial, temporal, or delayed margin of safety. We used literature on birds for goals (b) and (c). Our review considered the following eight models: the economic escape model, Blumstein's economic escape model, the optimal escape model, the perceptual limit hypothesis, the visual cue model, the flush early and avoid the rush (FEAR) hypothesis, the looming stimulus hypothesis, and the Bayesian model of escape behavior. We were able to generate quantitative predictions about escape distance with the last five models. However, we were only able to assess sensitivity to vehicle approach speed for the last three models. The FEAR hypothesis is most sensitive to high-speed vehicles when the species follows the spatial (FID remains constant as speed increases) and the temporal margin of safety (FID increases with an increase in speed) rules of escape. The looming stimulus effect hypothesis reached small to intermediate levels of sensitivity to high-speed vehicles when a species follows the delayed margin of safety (FID decreases with an increase in speed). The Bayesian optimal escape model reached intermediate levels of sensitivity to approach speed across all escape rules (spatial, temporal, delayed margins of safety) but only for larger (> 1 kg) species, but was not sensitive to speed for smaller species. Overall, no single antipredator behavior model could characterize all different types of escape responses relative to vehicle approach speed but some models showed some levels of sensitivity for certain rules of escape behavior. We derive some applied applications of our findings by suggesting the estimation of critical vehicle approach speeds for managing populations that are especially susceptible to road mortality. Overall, we recommend that new escape behavior models specifically tailored to high-speeds vehicles should be developed to better predict quantitatively the responses of animals to an increase in the frequency of cars, airplanes, drones, etc. they will face in the next decade.

Responses of turkey vultures to unmanned aircraft systems vary by platform

A challenge that conservation practitioners face is manipulating behavior of nuisance species. The turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) can cause substantial damage to aircraft if struck. The goal of this study was to assess vulture responses to unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) for use as a possible dispersal tool. Our treatments included three platforms (fixed-wing, multirotor, and a predator-like ornithopter [powered by flapping flight]) and two approach types (30 m overhead or targeted towards a vulture) in an operational context. We evaluated perceived risk as probability of reaction, reaction time, flight-initiation distance (FID), vulture remaining index, and latency to return. Vultures escaped sooner in response to the fixed-wing; however, fewer remained after multirotor treatments. Targeted approaches were perceived as riskier than overhead. Vulture perceived risk was enhanced by flying the multirotor in a targeted approach. We found no effect of our treatments on FID or latency to return. Latency was negatively correlated with UAS speed, perhaps because slower UAS spent more time over the area. Greatest visual saliency followed as: ornithopter, fixed-wing, and multirotor. Despite its appearance, the ornithopter was not effective at dispersing vultures. Because effectiveness varied, multirotor/fixed-wing UAS use should be informed by management goals (immediate dispersal versus latency).

Landscape transformations produce favorable roosting conditions for turkey vultures and black vultures

Recent increases in turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) and black vulture (Coragyps atratus) populations in North America have been attributed in part to their success adapting to human-modified landscapes. However, the capacity for such landscapes to generate favorable roosting conditions for these species has not been thoroughly investigated. We assessed the role of anthropogenic and natural landscape elements on roosting habitat selection of 11 black and 7 turkey vultures in coastal South Carolina, USA using a GPS satellite transmitter dataset derived from previous research. Our dataset spanned 2006–2012 and contained data from 7916 nights of roosting. Landscape fragmentation, as measured by land cover richness, influenced roosting probability for both species in all seasons, showing either a positive relationship or peaking at intermediate values. Roosting probability of turkey vultures was maximized at intermediate road densities in three of four seasons, and black vultures showed a positive relationship with roads in fall, but no relationship throughout the rest of the year. Roosting probability of both species declined with increasing high density urban cover throughout most of the year. We suggest that landscape transformations lead to favorable roosting conditions for turkey vultures and black vultures, which has likely contributed to their recent proliferations across much of the Western Hemisphere.

Behaviourally mediated biases in transect surveys: a predation risk sensitivity approach

Variation in the behaviour of individuals or species, particularly their propensity to avoid or approach human observers, their conveyances (e.g., cars), or their proxy devices (e.g., drones) has been recognized as a source of bias in transect counts. However, there has been little attempt to predict the likelihood or magnitude of such biases. Behavioural ecology provides a rich source of theory to develop a general framework for doing so. For example, if animals perceive observers as predators, then the extensive body of research on responses of prey to their predators may be applied to this issue. Here we survey the literature on flight initiation distance (the distance from a predator or disturbance stimulus at which prey flee) for a variety of taxa to suggest which characteristics of the animal, the observer, and the environment may create negatively biased counts. We also consider factors that might cause prey to approach observers, creating positive bias, and discuss when and why motivation for both approach and avoidance might occur simultaneously and how animals may resolve such trade-offs. Finally, we discuss the potential for predicting the extent of the behaviourally mediated biases that may be expected in transect counts and consider ways of dealing with them.

Social information affects Canada goose alert and escape responses to vehicle approach: implications for animal-vehicle collisions

BACKGROUND

Animal-vehicle collisions represent substantial sources of mortality for a variety of taxa and can pose hazards to property and human health. But there is comparatively little information available on escape responses by free-ranging animals to vehicle approach versus predators/humans.

METHODS

We examined responses (alert distance and flight-initiation distance) of focal Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima) to vehicle approach (15.6 m·s-1) in a semi-natural setting and given full opportunity to escape. We manipulated the direction of the vehicle approach (direct versus tangential) and availability of social information about the vehicle approach (companion group visually exposed or not to the vehicle).

RESULTS

We found that both categorical factors interacted to affect alert and escape behaviors. Focal geese used mostly personal information to become alert to the vehicle under high risk scenarios (direct approach), but they combined personal and social information to become alert in low risk scenarios (tangential approach). Additionally, when social information was not available from the companion group, focal birds escaped at greater distances under direct compared to tangential approaches. However, when the companion group could see the vehicle approaching, focal birds escaped at similar distances irrespective of vehicle direction. Finally, geese showed a greater tendency to take flight when the vehicle approached directly, as opposed to a side step or walking away from the vehicle.

CONCLUSIONS

We suggest that the perception of risk to vehicle approach (likely versus unlikely collision) is weighted by the availability of social information in the group; a phenomenon not described before in the context of animal-vehicle interactions. Notably, when social information is available, the effects of heightened risk associated with a direct approach might be reduced, leading to the animal delaying the escape, which could ultimately increase the chances of a collision. Also, information on a priori escape distances required for surviving a vehicle approach (based on species behavior and vehicle approach speeds) can inform planning, such as location of designated cover or safe areas. Future studies should assess how information from vehicle approach flows within a flock, including aspects of vehicle speed and size, metrics that affect escape decision-making.

Water body type and group size affect the flight initiation distance of European waterbirds

Human encroachment on nature grows constantly, increasing human-wildlife interactions. Flight initiation distance (FID, the distance at which animals flee from an approaching threat) is often used to measure antipredator behaviour and establish buffer zones to reduce human impact on wildlife. In this study, we approached 10 waterbird species on larger lakes and narrower rivers using a motorboat. We investigated whether water body type, season (winter/spring), approach starting distance, species body mass, and group size influenced bird FID. Average bird FID was 145 ± 92 m and differed between species. In general, FID of all species was larger on lakes than rivers and increased with increasing group size and approach starting distance. When analysed separately for the two most common species, common goldeneyes (Bucephala clangula) and mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), FID increased with increasing starting distance on rivers, but not lakes, likely because birds on lakes have enough time to evaluate the approaching object and take flight at great distance. Additionally, birds might perform different activities on lakes versus rivers, leading to varying energetic trade-offs between the two habitat types, which may affect the decision when to take flight. Finally, mallards aggregated in larger groups on lakes, which affected FID, likely due to enhanced visibility (i.e., earlier detection of the approaching boat) and detection probability (via increased group size) on lakes. Our results emphasize the importance of accounting for habitat characteristics, such as water body type, when studying waterbird FID, because they can affect the visibility of stimuli, group size and potentially animal behaviour, factors which should be taken into account when planning buffer zones for waterbirds in conservation areas.

Roads do not increase carrion use by a vertebrate scavenging community

Wildlife-vehicle collisions introduce a considerable amount of carrion into the environment, but scavenger use of this resource has not been extensively investigated. Scavengers may use roads for reliable foraging opportunities, but might also use roads for other purposes and encounter carrion opportunistically. We examined scavenging of carrion along linear features by placing 52 rabbit carcasses in each of three treatments in forested habitat during winter (Dec 2016-Mar 2017) in South Carolina, USA: roads, power line clearings (linear feature with fewer carcasses than roads due to lack of road kill), and forest interior. We used motion-activated cameras to compare arrival times and presence of vertebrate scavengers among treatments. There was no difference in proportion of carcasses scavenged or scavenger arrival time across treatments. No species arrived at roads quicker than other treatments. Turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) and coyotes (Canis latrans) scavenged equally across treatments, whereas gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) scavenged along roads and power lines, but not in forests. We suggest that scavenger use of carrion near roads at this location during winter relates to factors other than carrion availability. Because some scavengers readily consumed carrion on roads, this resource has the potential to influence the ecology of these species.

Individual variation in avian avoidance behaviours in response to repeated, simulated vehicle approach

Birds exhibit variation in alert and flight behaviours in response to vehicles within and between species, but it is unclear how properties inherent to individuals influence variation in avoidance responses over time. We examined individual variation in avoidance behaviours of Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater (Boddaert, 1783)) in response to repeated presentation of a simulated vehicle approach in a video playback scenario. We modeled temporal alert and flight behaviours to determine whether overall behavioural variation resulted primarily from variation within individuals (i.e., intraindividual variation) or between individuals (i.e., interindividual variation). We examined reaction norms (individual × treatment day) and whether birds showed plasticity in responses via habituation or sensitization. Repeatability in the response metrics for individuals was low (∼0.22 for alert and flight), indicating that model variation was due primarily to within-individual variation rather than between-individual variation. We observed sensitization in alert responses over time, but no sensitization or habituation in flight responses. Our results indicate that individuals learned to anticipate the vehicle approach but did not vary their escape behaviour, suggesting that alert and flight behaviours might be affected differently by cues associated with oncoming objects or experience with them. We consider our findings in light of the ongoing development of strategies to reduce animal–vehicle collisions.

Maximizing the wildlife conservation value of road right-of-ways in an agriculturally dominated landscape

There has been a growing recognition that the narrow linear strips of uncultivated vegetation that lie between roads and agricultural crops, referred to as roadside right-of-ways or verges, can serve as areas for the conservation of wildlife. The features of right-of-ways that should influence the composition of wildlife communities vary considerably. Our goal was to determine what features of right-of-ways increased the conservation potential of right-of-ways for wildlife in a grassland system dominated by agricultural production. We sampled 100 right-of-ways for birds and 92 right-of-ways for small mammals in McDonough and Warren Counties in west-central Illinois. We found that the sizes of right-of-ways and the amount of traffic on the adjacent roads synergistically worked to influence wildlife communities. On roads with low traffic, avian species richness increased rapidly with increased right-of-way width, while on roads with high traffic, avian richness increased only slightly with increasing right-of-way widths. We found that wider roadside right-of-ways (preferably across the road from equally wide right-of-ways) with thicker and taller vegetation had the greatest conservation value for birds and small mammals. The features that enhanced the conservation value of right-of-ways in our study area were uncommon. Efforts to create or enhance these features for the benefit of wildlife would likely face numerous obstacles. Nonetheless, from a grassland conservation perspective, working with stakeholders to implement specific strategies to enhance these often neglected areas may be an effective complement to purchasing and restoring conservation lands away from roads.

Speed kills: ineffective avian escape responses to oncoming vehicles

Animal-vehicle collisions cause high levels of vertebrate mortality worldwide, and what goes wrong when animals fail to escape and ultimately collide with vehicles is not well understood. We investigated alert and escape behaviours of captive brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) in response to virtual vehicle approaches of different sizes and at speeds ranging from 60 to 360 km h(-1). Alert and flight initiation distances remained similar across vehicle speeds, and accordingly, alert and flight initiation times decreased at higher vehicle speeds. Thus, avoidance behaviours in cowbirds appeared to be based on distance rather than time available for escape, particularly at 60-150 km h(-1); however, at higher speeds (more than or equal to 180 km h(-1)) no trend in response behaviour was discernible. As vehicle speed increased, cowbirds did not have enough time to assess the approaching vehicle, and cowbirds generally did not initiate flight with enough time to avoid collision when vehicle speed exceeded 120 km h(-1). Although potentially effective for evading predators, the decision-making process used by cowbirds in our study appears maladaptive in the context of avoiding fast-moving vehicles. Our methodological approach and findings provide a framework to assess how novel management strategies could affect escape rules, and the sensory and cognitive abilities animals use to avoid vehicle collisions.

White-tailed deer response to vehicle approach: evidence of unclear and present danger

The fundamental causes of animal-vehicle collisions are unclear, particularly at the level of animal detection of approaching vehicles and decision-making. Deer-vehicle collisions (DVCs) are especially costly in terms of animal mortality, property damage, and safety. Over one year, we exposed free-ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to vehicle approach under low ambient light conditions, from varying start distances, and vehicle speeds from 20 km/h to approximately 90 km/h. We modeled flight response by deer to an approaching vehicle and tested four hypotheses: 1) flight-initiation distance (FID) would correlate positively with start distance (indicating a spatial margin of safety); 2) deer would react to vehicle speed using a temporal margin of safety; 3) individuals reacting at greater FIDs would be more likely to cross the path of the vehicle; and 4) crossings would correlate positively with start distance, approach speed, and distance to concealing/refuge cover. We examined deer responses by quantiles. Median FID was 40% of start distance, irrespective of start distance or approach speed. Converting FID to time-to-collision (TTC), median TTC was 4.6 s, but uncorrelated with start distance or approach speed. The likelihood of deer crossing in front of the vehicle was not associated with greater FIDs or other explanatory variables. Because deer flight response to vehicle approach was highly variable, DVCs should be more likely with increasing vehicle speeds because of lower TTCs for a given distance. For road sections characterized by frequent DVCs, we recommend estimating TTC relative to vehicle speed and candidate line-of-sight distances adjusted downward by (1-P), where P represents our findings for the proportion of start distance by which >75% of deer had initiated flight. Where road design or conservation goals limit effectiveness of line-of-sight maintenance, we suggest incorporation of roadway obstacles that force drivers to slow vehicles, in addition to posting advisory speed limits.