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Bedendi G, De Moura Torquato LD, Webb S, Cadoux C, Kulkarni A, Sahin S, Maroni P, Milton RD, Grattieri M. Enzymatic and Microbial Electrochemistry: Approaches and Methods. ACS MEASUREMENT SCIENCE AU 2022; 2:517-541. [PMID: 36573075 PMCID: PMC9783092 DOI: 10.1021/acsmeasuresciau.2c00042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The coupling of enzymes and/or intact bacteria with electrodes has been vastly investigated due to the wide range of existing applications. These span from biomedical and biosensing to energy production purposes and bioelectrosynthesis, whether for theoretical research or pure applied industrial processes. Both enzymes and bacteria offer a potential biotechnological alternative to noble/rare metal-dependent catalytic processes. However, when developing these biohybrid electrochemical systems, it is of the utmost importance to investigate how the approaches utilized to couple biocatalysts and electrodes influence the resulting bioelectrocatalytic response. Accordingly, this tutorial review starts by recalling some basic principles and applications of bioelectrochemistry, presenting the electrode and/or biocatalyst modifications that facilitate the interaction between the biotic and abiotic components of bioelectrochemical systems. Focus is then directed toward the methods used to evaluate the effectiveness of enzyme/bacteria-electrode interaction and the insights that they provide. The basic concepts of electrochemical methods widely employed in enzymatic and microbial electrochemistry, such as amperometry and voltammetry, are initially presented to later focus on various complementary methods such as spectroelectrochemistry, fluorescence spectroscopy and microscopy, and surface analytical/characterization techniques such as quartz crystal microbalance and atomic force microscopy. The tutorial review is thus aimed at students and graduate students approaching the field of enzymatic and microbial electrochemistry, while also providing a critical and up-to-date reference for senior researchers working in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giada Bedendi
- Department
of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | | | - Sophie Webb
- Department
of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
- National
Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) Catalysis, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Cécile Cadoux
- Department
of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
- National
Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) Catalysis, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Amogh Kulkarni
- Department
of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Selmihan Sahin
- Department
of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Plinio Maroni
- Department
of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Ross D. Milton
- Department
of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
- National
Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) Catalysis, University of Geneva, Quai Ernest-Ansermet 30, 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Matteo Grattieri
- Dipartimento
di Chimica, Università degli Studi
di Bari “Aldo Moro”, via E. Orabona 4, Bari 70125, Italy
- IPCF-CNR
Istituto per i Processi Chimico Fisici, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, via E. Orabona 4, Bari 70125, Italy
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Duan F, Sun T, Zhang J, Wang K, Wen Y, Lu L. Recent innovations in immobilization of β-galactosidases for industrial and therapeutic applications. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 61:108053. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.108053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Ko HJ, Song H, Choi IG. Development of a Novel Cell Surface Attachment System to Display Multi-Protein Complex Using the Cohesin-Dockerin Binding Pair. J Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 31:1183-1189. [PMID: 34226404 PMCID: PMC9705933 DOI: 10.4014/jmb.2105.05022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Autodisplay of a multimeric protein complex on a cell surface is limited by intrinsic factors such as the types and orientations of anchor modules. Moreover, improper folding of proteins to be displayed often hinders functional cell surface display. While overcoming these drawbacks, we ultimately extended the applicability of the autodisplay platform to the display of a protein complex. We designed and constructed a cell surface attachment (CSA) system that uses a noncovalent protein-protein interaction. We employed the high-affinity interaction mediated by an orthogonal cohesin-dockerin (Coh-Doc) pair from Archaeoglobus fulgidus to build the CSA system. Then, we validated the orthogonal Coh-Doc binding by attaching a monomeric red fluorescent protein to the cell surface. In addition, we evaluated the functional anchoring of proteins fused with the Doc module to the autodisplayed Coh module on the surface of Escherichia coli. The designed CSA system was applied to create a functional attachment of dimeric α-neoagarobiose hydrolase to the surface of E. coli cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeok-Jin Ko
- Food Biotech R&D Center, Samyang Corp., Seongnam 13488, Republic of Korea
| | - Heesang Song
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Chosun University School of Medicine, Gwangju 61452, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Geol Choi
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
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Dubrovin EV, Klinov DV, Schäffer TE. Evidence of (anti)metamorphic properties of modified graphitic surfaces obtained in real time at a single-molecule level. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2020; 193:111077. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.111077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Fuentes-Baile M, Bello-Gil D, Pérez-Valenciano E, Sanz JM, García-Morales P, Maestro B, Ventero MP, Alenda C, Barberá VM, Saceda M. CLytA-DAAO, Free and Immobilized in Magnetic Nanoparticles, induces Cell Death in Human Cancer Cells. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10020222. [PMID: 32028649 PMCID: PMC7072168 DOI: 10.3390/biom10020222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
D-amino acid oxidase (DAAO) catalyzes the oxidation of D-amino acids generating hydrogen peroxide, a potential producer of reactive oxygen species. In this study, we used a CLytA-DAAO chimera, both free and bound to magnetic nanoparticles, against colon carcinoma, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, and glioblastoma cell lines. We found that the enzyme induces cell death in most of the cell lines tested and its efficiency increases significantly when it is immobilized in nanoparticles. We also tested this enzyme therapy in non-tumor cells, and we found that there is not cell death induction, or it is significantly lower than in tumor cells. The mechanism triggering cell death is apparently a classical apoptosis pathway in the glioblastoma cell lines, while in colon and pancreatic carcinoma cell lines, CLytA-DAAO-induced cell death is a necrosis. Our results constitute a proof of concept that an enzymatic therapy, based on magnetic nanoparticles-delivering CLytA-DAAO, could constitute a useful therapy against cancer and besides it could be used as an enhancer of other treatments such as epigenetic therapy, radiotherapy, and treatments based on DNA repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Fuentes-Baile
- Hospital General Universitario de Alicante, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de Alicante (ISABIAL), C/Maestro Alonso, 10, 03005 Alicante, Spain; (M.F.-B.); (M.P.V.); (C.A.)
- Unidad de Investigación. Hospital General Universitario de Elche, Fundación para el Fomento de la Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de la Comunidad Valenciana (FISABIO), Camí de l’Almazara, 11, 03203 Elche (Alicante), Spain; (P.G.-M.); (V.M.B.)
| | - Daniel Bello-Gil
- Instituto de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación en Biotecnología Sanitaria de Elche (IDiBE), Universidad Miguel Hernández, Avda. Universidad s/n, Ed. Torregaitán, 03202 Elche (Alicante), Spain; (D.B.-G.); (E.P.-V.); (J.M.S.); (B.M.)
| | - Elizabeth Pérez-Valenciano
- Instituto de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación en Biotecnología Sanitaria de Elche (IDiBE), Universidad Miguel Hernández, Avda. Universidad s/n, Ed. Torregaitán, 03202 Elche (Alicante), Spain; (D.B.-G.); (E.P.-V.); (J.M.S.); (B.M.)
| | - Jesús M. Sanz
- Instituto de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación en Biotecnología Sanitaria de Elche (IDiBE), Universidad Miguel Hernández, Avda. Universidad s/n, Ed. Torregaitán, 03202 Elche (Alicante), Spain; (D.B.-G.); (E.P.-V.); (J.M.S.); (B.M.)
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas) and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), C/Ramiro de Maeztu, 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Pilar García-Morales
- Unidad de Investigación. Hospital General Universitario de Elche, Fundación para el Fomento de la Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de la Comunidad Valenciana (FISABIO), Camí de l’Almazara, 11, 03203 Elche (Alicante), Spain; (P.G.-M.); (V.M.B.)
- Instituto de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación en Biotecnología Sanitaria de Elche (IDiBE), Universidad Miguel Hernández, Avda. Universidad s/n, Ed. Torregaitán, 03202 Elche (Alicante), Spain; (D.B.-G.); (E.P.-V.); (J.M.S.); (B.M.)
| | - Beatriz Maestro
- Instituto de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación en Biotecnología Sanitaria de Elche (IDiBE), Universidad Miguel Hernández, Avda. Universidad s/n, Ed. Torregaitán, 03202 Elche (Alicante), Spain; (D.B.-G.); (E.P.-V.); (J.M.S.); (B.M.)
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas) and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), C/Ramiro de Maeztu, 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - María P. Ventero
- Hospital General Universitario de Alicante, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de Alicante (ISABIAL), C/Maestro Alonso, 10, 03005 Alicante, Spain; (M.F.-B.); (M.P.V.); (C.A.)
| | - Cristina Alenda
- Hospital General Universitario de Alicante, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de Alicante (ISABIAL), C/Maestro Alonso, 10, 03005 Alicante, Spain; (M.F.-B.); (M.P.V.); (C.A.)
| | - Víctor M. Barberá
- Unidad de Investigación. Hospital General Universitario de Elche, Fundación para el Fomento de la Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de la Comunidad Valenciana (FISABIO), Camí de l’Almazara, 11, 03203 Elche (Alicante), Spain; (P.G.-M.); (V.M.B.)
- Unidad de Genética Molecular. Hospital General Universitario de Elche. Camí de l’Almazara, 11, 03203 Elche (Alicante), Spain
| | - Miguel Saceda
- Unidad de Investigación. Hospital General Universitario de Elche, Fundación para el Fomento de la Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de la Comunidad Valenciana (FISABIO), Camí de l’Almazara, 11, 03203 Elche (Alicante), Spain; (P.G.-M.); (V.M.B.)
- Instituto de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación en Biotecnología Sanitaria de Elche (IDiBE), Universidad Miguel Hernández, Avda. Universidad s/n, Ed. Torregaitán, 03202 Elche (Alicante), Spain; (D.B.-G.); (E.P.-V.); (J.M.S.); (B.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-966658432
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Furtado LDA, Gonçalves MCDO, Inocêncio CVM, Pinto EM, Martins DDL, Semaan FS. Electrodeposition of 4-Benzenesulfonic Acid onto a Graphite-Epoxy Composite Electrode for the Enhanced Voltammetric Determination of Caffeine in Beverages. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL METHODS IN CHEMISTRY 2019; 2019:8596484. [PMID: 30809415 PMCID: PMC6364101 DOI: 10.1155/2019/8596484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Caffeine is widely present in food and drinks, such as teas and coffees, being also part of some currently commercialized medicines, but despite its enhancement on several functions of human body, its exceeding use can promote many health problems. In order to develop new fast approaches for the caffeine sensing, graphite-epoxy composite electrodes (GECE) were used as substrate, being modified by different diazonium salts, synthetized as their tetraflouroborate salts. An analytical method for caffeine quantification was developed, using sware wave voltammetry (SWV) in Britton-Robinson buffer pH 2.0. Detection limits for bare electrode and 4-benzenesulfonic modified electrode were observed circa 145 µmol·L-1 and 1.3 µmol·L-1, respectively. The results have shown that the modification shifts the oxidation peaks to lower potential. Kinetics of the reaction limited by diffusion was more expressive when caffeine was added to the solution, resulting in decreases of impedance, characterized by lower R ct. All results for caffeine determination were compared to a reference chromatographic procedure (HPLC), showing no statistical difference. Analytical parameters for validation were suitably determined according to local legislation, leading to a linear behaviour from 5 to 150 µmol·L-1; precision of 4.09% was evaluated based on the RDC 166/17, and accuracy was evaluated in comparison with the reference method, with recovery of 98.37 ± 2.58%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo de A. Furtado
- Laboratório Aniy K. Ohara de Sensores Compósitos e Eletroanálise, Departamento de Química Analítica, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Campus do Valonguinho, Prédio do Instituto de Química, Centro, Niterói, RJ 24020-141, Brazil
| | - Mariana C. de O. Gonçalves
- Laboratório Aniy K. Ohara de Sensores Compósitos e Eletroanálise, Departamento de Química Analítica, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Campus do Valonguinho, Prédio do Instituto de Química, Centro, Niterói, RJ 24020-141, Brazil
| | - Carlos V. M. Inocêncio
- Laboratório Aniy K. Ohara de Sensores Compósitos e Eletroanálise, Departamento de Química Analítica, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Campus do Valonguinho, Prédio do Instituto de Química, Centro, Niterói, RJ 24020-141, Brazil
| | | | - Daniela de L. Martins
- Grupo de Pesquisas em Catálise e Síntese (Laboratório 413), Departamento de Química Orgânica, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Campus do Valonguinho, Prédio do Instituto de Química, Centro, Niterói, RJ 24020-141, Brazil
| | - Felipe S. Semaan
- Laboratório Aniy K. Ohara de Sensores Compósitos e Eletroanálise, Departamento de Química Analítica, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Campus do Valonguinho, Prédio do Instituto de Química, Centro, Niterói, RJ 24020-141, Brazil
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Díaz-Ayala R, Torres-González L, Pietri R, Cabrera CR, López-Garriga J. Engineered (Lys) 6-Tagged Recombinant Sulfide-Reactive Hemoglobin I for Covalent Immobilization at Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes. ACS OMEGA 2017; 2:9021-9032. [PMID: 29302632 PMCID: PMC5748273 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.7b01500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The recombinant HbI was fused with a poly-Lys tag ((Lys)6-tagged rHbI) for specific-site covalent immobilization on two carbon nanotube transducer surfaces, i.e., powder and vertically aligned carbon nanotubes. The immobilization was achieved by following two steps: (1) generation of amine-reactive ester from the carboxylic acid groups of the surfaces and (2) coupling these groups with the amine groups of the Lys-tag. We analyzed the immobilization process using different conditions and techniques to differentiate protein covalent attachment from physical adsorption. Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy data showed a 14 cm-1 displacement of the protein's amide I and amide II peaks to lower the frequency after immobilization. This result indicates a covalent attachment of the protein to the surface. Differences in the morphology of the carbon substrate with and without (Lys)6-tagged rHbI confirmed protein immobilization, as observed by transmission electron microscopy. The electrochemical studies, which were performed to evaluate the redox center of the immobilized protein, show a confinement suitable for an efficient electron transfer system. More importantly, the electrochemical studies allowed determination of a redox potential for the new (Lys)6-tagged rHbI. The data show that the protein is electrochemically active and retains its biological activity toward H2S.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramonita Díaz-Ayala
- Department
of Chemistry, P.O. Box 9000, University
of Puerto Rico—Mayagüez Campus, Mayaguez 00680-9000, Puerto Rico
| | - Lisa Torres-González
- Department
of Chemistry, P.O. Box 9000, University
of Puerto Rico—Mayagüez Campus, Mayaguez 00680-9000, Puerto Rico
| | - Ruth Pietri
- Department
of Chemistry, P.O. Box 372230, University
of Puerto Rico—Cayey Campus, Cayey 00737-2230, Puerto
Rico
| | - Carlos R. Cabrera
- Department
of Chemistry, P.O. Box 23346, University
of Puerto Rico—Río Piedras Campus, San Juan 00931-3346, Puerto Rico
| | - Juan López-Garriga
- Department
of Chemistry, P.O. Box 9000, University
of Puerto Rico—Mayagüez Campus, Mayaguez 00680-9000, Puerto Rico
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Verma ML. Enzymatic Nanobiosensors in the Agricultural and Food Industry. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE REVIEWS 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-53112-0_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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9
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Díaz-Ayala R, Moya-Rodríguez A, Pietri R, Cadilla CL, López-Garriga J. Molecular Cloning and Characterization of a (Lys)6-Tagged Sulfide-Reactive Hemoglobin I from Lucina pectinata. Mol Biotechnol 2016; 57:1050-62. [PMID: 26482241 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-015-9896-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
A poly-Lys tag was fused to the Lucina pectinata hemoglobin I (HbI) coding sequence and purified using an efficient and fast process. HbI is a hemeprotein that binds hydrogen sulfide (H2S) with high affinity and it has been used to understand physiologically relevant reactions of this signaling molecule. The (Lys)6-tagged rHbI construct was expressed in E. coli and purified by immobilization on a cation exchange matrix, followed by size-exclusion chromatography. The identity, structure, and function of the (Lys)6-tagged rHbI were assessed by mass spectrometry, small and wide X-ray scattering, optical spectroscopy, and kinetic analysis. The scattering and spectroscopic results showed that the (Lys)6-tagged rHbI is structurally and functionally analogous to the native protein as well as to the (His)6-tagged rHbI. Kinetics studies with H2S indicated that the association (k on) and dissociation (k off) rate constants were 1.4 × 10(5)/M/s and 0.1 × 10(-3)/s, respectively. This results confirmed that the (Lys)6-tagged rHbI binds H2S with the same high affinity as its homologue.
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Hall EA, Chen S, Chun J, Du Y, Zhao Z. A molecular biology approach to protein coupling at a biosensor interface. Trends Analyt Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2016.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Grabowska I, Dehaen W, Radecka H, Radecki J. Exploring of protein – protein interactions at the solid – aqueous interface by means of contact angle measurements. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2016; 141:558-564. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2016.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Barbosa O, Ortiz C, Berenguer-Murcia Á, Torres R, Rodrigues RC, Fernandez-Lafuente R. Strategies for the one-step immobilization–purification of enzymes as industrial biocatalysts. Biotechnol Adv 2015; 33:435-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 481] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2014] [Revised: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Vashist SK, Lam E, Hrapovic S, Male KB, Luong JHT. Immobilization of Antibodies and Enzymes on 3-Aminopropyltriethoxysilane-Functionalized Bioanalytical Platforms for Biosensors and Diagnostics. Chem Rev 2014; 114:11083-130. [DOI: 10.1021/cr5000943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sandeep Kumar Vashist
- HSG-IMIT - Institut für Mikro- und Informationstechnik, Georges-Koehler-Allee 103, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
- Laboratory for MEMS Applications, Department of Microsystems Engineering - IMTEK, University of Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 103, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Edmond Lam
- National Research Council Canada, Montreal, Quebec H4P 2R2, Canada
| | | | - Keith B. Male
- National Research Council Canada, Montreal, Quebec H4P 2R2, Canada
| | - John H. T. Luong
- Innovative Chromatography Group, Irish Separation Science Cluster (ISSC), Department of Chemistry and Analytical, Biological Chemistry Research Facility (ABCRF), University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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