Identification of novel surface-exposed proteins of Rickettsia rickettsii by affinity purification and proteomics

Vaccine development: obligate intracellular bacteria new tools, old pathogens: the current state of vaccines against obligate intracellular bacteria

Obligate intracellular bacteria have remained those for which effective vaccines are unavailable, mostly because protection does not solely rely on an antibody response. Effective antibody-based vaccines, however, have been developed against extracellular bacteria pathogens or toxins. Additionally, obligate intracellular bacteria have evolved many mechanisms to subvert the immune response, making vaccine development complex. Much of what we know about protective immunity for these pathogens has been determined using infection-resolved cases and animal models that mimic disease. These studies have laid the groundwork for antigen discovery, which, combined with recent advances in vaccinology, should allow for the development of safe and efficacious vaccines. Successful vaccines against obligate intracellular bacteria should elicit potent T cell memory responses, in addition to humoral responses. Furthermore, they ought to be designed to specifically induce strong cytotoxic CD8+ T cell responses for protective immunity. This review will describe what we know about the potentially protective immune responses to this group of bacteria. Additionally, we will argue that the novel delivery platforms used during the Sars-CoV-2 pandemic should be excellent candidates to produce protective immunity once antigens are discovered. We will then look more specifically into the vaccine development for Rickettsiaceae, Coxiella burnetti, and Anaplasmataceae from infancy until today. We have not included Chlamydia trachomatis in this review because of the many vaccine related reviews that have been written in recent years.

Subversion of host cell signaling: The arsenal of Rickettsial species

Rickettsia is a genus of nonmotile, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, highly pleomorphic bacteria that cause severe epidemic rickettsioses. The spotted fever group and typhi group are major members of the genus Rickettsia. Rickettsial species from the two groups subvert diverse host cellular processes, including membrane dynamics, actin cytoskeleton dynamics, phosphoinositide metabolism, intracellular trafficking, and immune defense, to promote their host colonization and intercellular transmission through secreted effectors (virulence factors). However, lineage-specific rickettsiae have exploited divergent strategies to accomplish such challenging tasks and these elaborated strategies focus on distinct host cell processes. In the present review, we summarized current understandings of how different rickettsial species employ their effectors' arsenal to affect host cellular processes in order to promote their own replication or to avoid destruction.

The Ankyrin Repeat Protein RARP-1 Is a Periplasmic Factor That Supports Rickettsia parkeri Growth and Host Cell Invasion

Rickettsia spp. are obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens that have evolved a variety of strategies to exploit their host cell niche. However, the bacterial factors that contribute to this intracellular lifestyle are poorly understood. Here, we show that the conserved ankyrin repeat protein RARP-1 supports Rickettsia parkeri infection. Specifically, RARP-1 promotes efficient host cell entry and growth within the host cytoplasm, but it is not necessary for cell-to-cell spread or evasion of host autophagy. We further demonstrate that RARP-1 is not secreted into the host cytoplasm by R. parkeri. Instead, RARP-1 resides in the periplasm, and we identify several binding partners that are predicted to work in concert with RARP-1 during infection. Altogether, our data reveal that RARP-1 plays a critical role in the rickettsial life cycle. IMPORTANCE Rickettsia spp. are obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens that pose a growing threat to human health. Nevertheless, their strict reliance on a host cell niche has hindered investigation of the molecular mechanisms driving rickettsial infection. This study yields much-needed insight into the Rickettsia ankyrin repeat protein RARP-1, which is conserved across the genus but has not yet been functionally characterized. Earlier work had suggested that RARP-1 is secreted into the host cytoplasm. However, the results from this work demonstrate that R. parkeri RARP-1 resides in the periplasm and is important both for invasion of host cells and for growth in the host cell cytoplasm. These results reveal RARP-1 as a novel regulator of the rickettsial life cycle.

Vaccine Design and Vaccination Strategies against Rickettsiae

Rickettsioses are febrile, potentially lethal infectious diseases that are a serious health threat, especially in poor income countries. The causative agents are small obligate intracellular bacteria, rickettsiae. Rickettsial infections are emerging worldwide with increasing incidence and geographic distribution. Nonetheless, these infections are clearly underdiagnosed because methods of diagnosis are still limited and often not available. Another problem is that the bacteria respond to only a few antibiotics, so delayed or wrong antibiotic treatment often leads to a more severe outcome of the disease. In addition to that, the development of antibiotic resistance is a serious threat because alternative antibiotics are missing. For these reasons, prophylactic vaccines against rickettsiae are urgently needed. In the past years, knowledge about protective immunity against rickettsiae and immunogenic determinants has been increasing and provides a basis for vaccine development against these bacterial pathogens. This review provides an overview of experimental vaccination approaches against rickettsial infections and perspectives on vaccination strategies.

GroEL is an immunodominant surface-exposed antigen of Rickettsia typhi

Rickettsioses are neglected and emerging potentially fatal febrile diseases that are caused by obligate intracellular bacteria, rickettsiae. Rickettsia (R.) typhi and R. prowazekii constitute the typhus group (TG) of rickettsiae and are the causative agents of endemic and epidemic typhus, respectively. We recently generated a monoclonal antibody (BNI52) against R. typhi. Characterization of BNI52 revealed that it specifically recognizes TG rickettsiae but not the members of the spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsiae. We further show that BNI52 binds to protein fragments of ±30 kDa that are exposed on the bacterial surface and also present in the periplasmic space. These protein fragments apparently derive from the cytosolic GroEL protein of R. typhi and are also recognized by antibodies in the sera from patients and infected mice. Furthermore, BNI52 opsonizes the bacteria for the uptake by antigen presenting cells (APC), indicating a contribution of GroEL-specific antibodies to protective immunity. Finally, it is interesting that the GroEL protein belongs to 32 proteins that are differentially downregulated by R. typhi after passage through immunodeficient BALB/c CB17 SCID mice. This could be a hint that the rickettsia GroEL protein may have immunomodulatory properties as shown for the homologous protein from several other bacteria, too. Overall, the results of this study provide evidence that GroEL represents an immunodominant antigen of TG rickettsiae that is recognized by the humoral immune response against these pathogens and that may be interesting as a vaccine candidate. Apart from that, the BNI52 antibody represents a new tool for specific detection of TG rickettsiae in various diagnostic and experimental setups.

Exploratory development of PCR-fluorescent probes in rapid detection of mutations associated with extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis

This study aims to evaluate the clinical value of PCR-fluorescent probes for detecting the mutation gene associated with extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB). The molecular species identification of 900 sputum specimens was performed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-fluorescent probe. The mutations of the drug resistance genes rpoB, katG, inhA, embB, rpsL, rrs, and gyrA were detected. The conventional drug susceptibility testing (DST) and PCR-directed sequencing (PCR-DS) were carried out as control. DST demonstrated that there were 501 strains of rifampicin resistance, 451 strains of isoniazid resistance, 293 strains of quinolone resistance, 425 strains of streptomycin resistance, 235 strains of ethambutol resistance, and 204 strains of amikacin resistance. Furthermore, 427 (47.44%) or 146 (16.22%) strains were MDR-TB or XDR-TB, respectively. The mutations of the rpoB, katG, inhA, embB, rpsL, rrs, and gyrA genes were detected in 751 of 900 TB patients by PCR-fluorescent probe method, and the rate of drug resistance was 751/900 (83.44%). No mutant genes were detected in the other 149 patients. Compared with DST, the mutant rates of rpoB, katG/inhA, rpsL, rrs, embB, and gyrA of six drugs were higher than 88%; five of six drugs were higher than 90% except for SM (88.11%). The MDR and XDR mutant gene types were found in 398 (42.22%) and 137 (15.22%) samples. PCR-DS was also employed and confirmed the PCR-fluorescent probe method with the accordance rate of 100%. The PCR-fluorescent probe method is rapid and straightforward in detecting XDR-TB genotypes and is worthy of being applied in hospitals.

Cells within cells: Rickettsiales and the obligate intracellular bacterial lifestyle

The Rickettsiales are a group of obligate intracellular vector-borne Gram-negative bacteria that include many organisms of clinical and agricultural importance, including Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Wolbachia, Rickettsia spp. and Orientia tsutsugamushi. This Review provides an overview of the current state of knowledge of the biology of these bacteria and their interactions with host cells, with a focus on pathogenic species or those that are otherwise important for human health. This includes a description of rickettsial genomics, bacterial cell biology, the intracellular lifestyles of Rickettsiales and the mechanisms by which they induce and evade the innate immune response.

The neglected challenge: Vaccination against rickettsiae

Over the last decades, rickettsioses are emerging worldwide. These diseases are caused by intracellular bacteria. Although rickettsioses can be treated with antibiotics, a vaccine against rickettsiae is highly desired for several reasons. Rickettsioses are highly prevalent, especially in poor countries, and there are indications of the development of antibiotic resistance. In addition, some rickettsiae can persist and cause recurrent disease. The development of a vaccine requires the understanding of the immune mechanisms that are involved in protection as well as in immunopathology. Knowledge about these immune responses is accumulating, and efforts have been undertaken to identify antigenic components of rickettsiae that may be useful as a vaccine. This review provides an overview on current knowledge of adaptive immunity against rickettsiae, which is essential for defense, rickettsial antigens that have been identified so far, and on vaccination strategies that have been used in animal models of rickettsial infections.

Animal Models of Tuberculosis Vaccine Research: An Important Component in the Fight against Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB), an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is one of the top ten infectious diseases worldwide, and is the leading cause of morbidity from a single infectious agent. M. tuberculosis can cause infection in several species of animals in addition to humans as the natural hosts. Although animal models of TB disease cannot completely simulate the occurrence and development of human TB, they play an important role in studying the pathogenesis, immune responses, and pathological changes as well as for vaccine research. This review summarizes the commonly employed animal models, including mouse, guinea pig, rabbit, rat, goat, cattle, and nonhuman primates, and their characteristics as used in TB vaccine research, and provides a basis for selecting appropriate animal models according to specific research needs. Furthermore, some of the newest animal models used for TB vaccine research (such as humanized animal models, zebrafish, Drosophila, and amoeba) are introduced, and their characteristics and research progress are discussed.

Identification of a Ribosomal Protein RpsB as a Surface-Exposed Protein and Adhesin of Rickettsia heilongjiangensis

Rickettsia heilongjiangensis is an obligate intracellular bacterium that is responsible for far-eastern spotted fever. Surface-exposed proteins (SEPs) play important roles in its pathogenesis. Previous work identified a ribosomal protein RpsB as an SEP by biotin-avidin affinity, a seroreactive antigen, and a diagnostic candidate protein, indicating that it might play an important role in the pathogenesis of rickettsiae. However, in the absence of other evidence, its subcellular location of being surface-exposed was puzzling because ribosomal proteins are located in the cytoplasm. In the present study, the subcellular location of RpsB was analyzed with bioinformatics tools coupled with immunoelectron microscopy. The adhesion ability of RpsB was evaluated by protein microarray and cellular ELISA. Consequently, different bioinformatics tools gave different location predication results. Thus, RpsB was found in the cytoplasma and inner and outer membranes of R. heilongjiangensis by transmission electron microscopy. Protein microarray and cellular ELISA showed that RpsB binds to the host cell surface and its adhesion ability was even stronger than the known adhesin Adr1. In conclusion, RpsB was visually and directly shown for the time to be an SEP of rickettsiae and might be an important ligand and adhesin of rickettsiae. Its roles in pathogenesis warrant further study.

The current status, challenges, and future developments of new tuberculosis vaccines

Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex causes tuberculosis (TB), one of the top 10 causes of death worldwide. TB results in more fatalities than multi-drug resistant (MDR) HIV strain related coinfection. Vaccines play a key role in the prevention and control of infectious diseases. Unfortunately, the only licensed preventive vaccine against TB, bacilli Calmette-Guérin (BCG), is ineffective for prevention of pulmonary TB in adults. Therefore, it is very important to develop novel vaccines for TB prevention and control. This literature review provides an overview of the innate and adaptive immune response during M. tuberculosis infection, and presents current developments and challenges to novel TB vaccines. A comprehensive understanding of vaccines in preclinical and clinical studies provides extensive insight for the development of safer and more efficient vaccines, and may inspire new ideas for TB prevention and treatment.

Differential biotin labelling of the cell envelope proteins in lipopolysaccharidic diderm bacteria: Exploring the proteosurfaceome of Escherichia coli using sulfo-NHS-SS-biotin and sulfo-NHS-PEG4-bismannose-SS-biotin

Surface proteins are the major factor for the interaction between bacteria and its environment, playing an important role in infection, colonisation, virulence and adaptation. However, the study of surface proteins has proven difficult mainly due to their hydrophobicity and/or relatively low abundance compared with cytoplasmic proteins. To overcome these issues new proteomic strategies have been developed, such as cell-surface protein labelling using biotinylation reagents. Sulfo-NHS-SS-biotin is the most commonly used reagent to investigate the proteins expressed at the cell surface of various organisms but its use in lipopolysaccharidic diderm bacteria (archetypical Gram-negative bacteria) remains limited to a handful of species. While generally pass over in silence, some periplasmic proteins, but also some inner membrane lipoproteins, integral membrane proteins and cytoplasmic proteins (cytoproteins) are systematically identified following this approach. To limit cell lysis and diffusion of the sulfo-NHS-SS-biotin through the outer membrane, biotin labelling was tested over short incubation times and proved to be as efficient for 1 min at room temperature. To further limit labelling of protein located below the outer membrane, the use of high-molecular weight sulfo-NHS-PEG4-bismannose-SS-biotin appeared to recover differentially cell-envelope proteins compared to low-molecular weight sulfo-NHS-SS-biotin. Actually, the sulfo-NHS-SS-biotin recovers at a higher extent the proteins completely or partly exposed in the periplasm than sulfo-NHS-PEG4-bismannose-SS-biotin, namely periplasmic and integral membrane proteins as well as inner membrane and outer membrane lipoproteins. These results highlight that protein labelling using biotinylation reagents of different sizes provides a sophisticated and accurate way to differentially explore the cell envelope proteome of lipopolysaccharidic diderm bacteria.

SIGNIFICANCE

While generally pass over in silence, some periplasmic proteins, inner membrane lipoproteins (IMLs), integral membrane proteins (IMPs) and cytoplasmic proteins (cytoproteins) are systematically identified following cell-surface biotin labelling in lipopolysaccharidic diderm bacteria (archetypal Gram-negative bacteria). The use of biotinylation molecules of different sizes, namely sulfo-NHS-SS-biotin and sulfo-NHS-PEG4-bismannose-SS-biotin, was demonstrated to provide a sophisticated and accurate way to differentially explore the cell envelope proteome of lipopolysaccharidic diderm bacteria.

A multiplex serologic platform for diagnosis of tick-borne diseases

Tick-borne diseases are the most common vector-borne diseases in the United States, with serology being the primary method of diagnosis. We developed the first multiplex, array-based assay for serodiagnosis of tick-borne diseases called the TBD-Serochip. The TBD-Serochip was designed to discriminate antibody responses to 8 major tick-borne pathogens present in the United States, including Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia microti, Borrelia burgdorferi, Borrelia miyamotoi, Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Rickettsia rickettsii, Heartland virus and Powassan virus. Each assay contains approximately 170,000 12-mer linear peptides that tile along the protein sequence of the major antigens from each agent with 11 amino acid overlap. This permits accurate identification of a wide range of specific immunodominant IgG and IgM epitopes that can then be used to enhance diagnostic accuracy and integrate differential diagnosis into a single assay. To test the performance of the TBD-Serochip, we examined sera from patients with confirmed Lyme disease, babesiosis, anaplasmosis, and Powassan virus disease. We identified a wide range of specific discriminatory epitopes that facilitated accurate diagnosis of each disease. We also identified previously undiagnosed infections. Our results indicate that the TBD-Serochip is a promising tool for a differential diagnosis not available with currently employed serologic assays for TBDs.

Th1 epitope peptides induce protective immunity against Rickettsia rickettsii infection in C3H/HeN mice

Rickettsia rickettsii is the causative pathogen of Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF). Adr2, YbgF and OmpB are protective antigens of R. rickettsii. In this study, 90 candidate peptides were selected from these antigens based on their high-affinity binding capacity for the MHC class II molecule H2 I-A or H2 I-E using bioinformatic methods. Six peptides were determined using ELISPOT assay to be immunodominant based on the IFN-γ recall responses of CD4⁺ T cells from mice immunized with R. rickettsii. Six nucleotide sequences encoding the immunodominant peptides were linked in series and inserted into a plasmid for expression in Escherichia coli cells, resulting in a new, recombinant polypeptide termed GWP. After immunization and challenge, the rickettsial load or histopathological lesions in the organs of mice immunized with GWP or pooled peptides was significantly lower than that in organs of mice immunized with PBS or the individual peptide OmpB₃₉₉. An in vitro neutralization test revealed that sera from mice immunized with GWP, OmpB₃₉₉, or pooled peptides reduced R. rickettsii adherence to, and invasion of, vascular endothelial cells. Furthermore, significantly higher levels of IgG, IgG1, or IgG2a were detected in sera from mice immunized with GWP or pooled peptides, and significantly higher levels of IFN-γ or TNF-α secreted by CD4⁺ T cells from R. rickettsii-infected mice were detected after immunization with GWP. Altogether, our results indicated that polypeptides, especially GWP, could induce a Th1-type immune response against R. rickettsii infection, which might contribute to the rational design of peptide-based vaccines for RMSF.

Evaluation of changes to the Rickettsia rickettsii transcriptome during mammalian infection

The lifecycle of Rickettsia rickettsii includes infection of both mammalian and arthropod hosts, with each environment presenting distinct challenges to survival. As such, these pathogens likely have distinctive transcriptional strategies for infection of each host. Herein, we report the utilization of next generation sequencing (RNAseq) and bioinformatic analysis techniques to examine the global transcriptional profile of R. rickettsii within an infected animal, and to compare that data to transcription in tissue culture. The results demonstrate substantial R. rickettsii transcriptional alteration in vivo, such that the bacteria are considerably altered from cell culture. Identification of significant transcriptional changes and validation of RNAseq by quantitative PCR are described with particular emphasis on known antigens and suspected virulence factors. Together, these results suggest that transcriptional regulation of a distinct cohort of genes may contribute to successful mammalian infection.

Multi-omics Analysis Sheds Light on the Evolution and the Intracellular Lifestyle Strategies of Spotted Fever Group Rickettsia spp

Arthropod-borne Rickettsia species are obligate intracellular bacteria which are pathogenic for humans. Within this genus, Rickettsia slovaca and Rickettsia conorii cause frequent and potentially severe infections, whereas Rickettsia raoultii and Rickettsia massiliae cause rare and milder infections. All four species belong to spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsiae. However, R. slovaca and R. raoultii cause scalp eschar and neck lymphadenopathy (SENLAT) and are mainly associated with Dermacentor ticks, whereas the other two species cause Mediterranean spotted fever (MSF) and are mainly transmitted by Rhipicephalus ticks. To identify the potential genes and protein profiles and to understand the evolutionary processes that could, comprehensively, relate to the differences in virulence and pathogenicity observed between these four species, we compared their genomes and proteomes. The virulent and milder agents displayed divergent phylogenomic evolution in two major clades, whereas either SENLAT or MSF disease suggests a discrete convergent evolution of one virulent and one milder agent, despite their distant genetic relatedness. Moreover, the two virulent species underwent strong reductive genomic evolution and protein structural variations, as well as a probable loss of plasmid(s), compared to the two milder species. However, an abundance of mobilome genes was observed only in the less pathogenic species. After infecting Xenopus laevis cells, the virulent agents displayed less up-regulated than down-regulated proteins, as well as less number of identified core proteins. Furthermore, their similar and distinct protein profiles did not contain some genes (e.g., ompA/B and rickA) known to be related to rickettsial adhesion, motility and/or virulence, but may include other putative virulence-, antivirulence-, and/or disease-related proteins. The identified evolutionary forces herein may have a strong impact on intracellular expressions and strategies in these rickettsiae, and that may contribute to the emergence of distinct virulence and diseases in humans. Thus, the current multi-omics data provide new insights into the evolution and fitness of SFG virulence and pathogenicity, and intracellular pathogenic bacteria.

Expression of Rickettsia Adr2 protein in E. coli is sufficient to promote resistance to complement-mediated killing, but not adherence to mammalian cells

Bacteria exposed to host serum are subject to the antibacterial effects to the complement system. However, pathogenic microorganisms have evolved mechanisms of evading this immune attack. We have previously demonstrated that at least two R. conorii antigens, RC1281/Adr1 and OmpB β-peptide, contribute to the evasion of complement-mediated killing by binding the complement regulatory proteins vitronectin and factor H. RC1282/Adr2, a protein related to Adr1, is predicted to share similar structural features, suggesting that this protein may also contribute to evasion of complement-mediated killing. Interestingly, the R. prowazekii Adr1 and Adr2(RP828) proteins were originally found to interact with host cell surface proteins, suggesting their putative roles as adhesins in this pathogenic rickettsial species. In this study, we expressed both R. conorii and R. prowazekii Adr2 on the surface of a non-adherent, serum-sensitive strain of E. coli to examine the potential role of this protein to mediate evasion of complement-mediated killing and adherence to host cells. We demonstrate that, similar to R. conorii Adr1, R. conorii and R. prowazekii Adr2 are sufficient to mediate serum resistance and to promote interaction with the host complement regulator vitronectin. Furthermore, we demonstrate that expression of Adr2 in a non-adherent strain of E. coli is insufficient to mediate adherence to cultured mammalian endothelial cells. Together, our data demonstrate that the R. conorii and R. prowazekii Adr2 protein does not participate in the interactions with mammalian cells, but rather, participates in the evasion of killing by complement.

Failure of a heterologous recombinant Sca5/OmpB protein-based vaccine to elicit effective protective immunity against Rickettsia rickettsii infections in C3H/HeN mice

Spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsial species are obligate intracellular tick-borne pathogens that are responsible for important human diseases. Previous reports have demonstrated the feasibility of using recombinant surface cell antigen Sca5/OmpB to elicit protective immunity against homologous challenges using murine models of Mediterranean spotted fever and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. In addition, the feasibility of generating cross-protective immunity against related rickettsial species has also been established, but the molecular basis for these phenomena was not explored. Here, we demonstrate that vaccination of C3H/HeN mice with a recombinant OmpB domain derived from Rickettsia conorii induced high titer humoral immune responses that are capable of recognizing the native OmpB protein at the R. rickettsii outer membrane, but this immunization was not sufficient to induce effective protective immunity. In contrast, animals vaccinated with a corresponding OmpB domain derived from R. rickettsii protected animals from fatal outcomes. These results demonstrate that vaccination with nearly identical antigens may not be an effective strategy to induce wide-ranging protective immunity against related SFG Rickettsia species.

Enhanced protection against Rickettsia rickettsii infection in C3H/HeN mice by immunization with a combination of a recombinant adhesin rAdr2 and a protein fragment rOmpB-4 derived from outer membrane protein B

BACKGROUND

Two surface proteins of Rickettsia rickettsii, outer membrane protein B (OmpB) and adhesion 2 (Adr2), have been recognized as protective antigens. Herein, the immunization with both OmpB and Adr2 was performed in mice so as to explore whether their combination could induce an enhanced immunoprotection against R. rickettsii infection.

METHODS

C3H/HeN mice were immunized with recombinant protein rAdr2 or/and rOmp-4, a fragment derived from OmpB, and then mice were challenged with R. rickettsii. After which rickettsial loads in mice were measured by quantitative PCR. The specific antibodies in mouse sera were determined by ELISA and antigen-specific cytokines secretion by mouse T cells were analyzed in vitro.

RESULTS

After challenge with R. rickettsii, the mice immunized with rAdr2 or/and rOmpB-4 had significant lower rickettsial load in livers, spleens, or lungs compared to PBS mock-immunized mice. Particularly, the load in lungs of mice immunized with both rAdr2 and rOmpB-4 was significantly lower than that with either of them. High levels of specific antibodies were detected in sera from mice immunized with rAdr2 or/and rOmpB-4, but the ratios of specific IgG2a to IgG1 induced by their combination were significantly higher than that by either rAdr2 or rOmpB-4. Following stimulation with rAdr2 or/and rOmpB-4, the INF-γ secreted by CD4(+) T cells from infected mice was significantly higher than that by cognate cells from uninfected mice. And the TNF-α secreted by CD4(+) or CD8(+) T cells from infected mice was markedly greater than that by cognate cells from uninfected mice after stimulation by their combination but not either of them.

CONCLUSION

The combination of rAdr2 and rOmpB-4 conferred an enhanced protection against R. rickettsii infection in mice, which was mainly dependent on a stronger Th1-oriented immunoresponse with greater INF-γ and TNF-α secretion by antigen-specific T cells and specific IgG2a elicited by the combination.

Serological characterization of surface-exposed proteins of Coxiella burnetii

The obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium Coxiella burnetii causes Q fever, a worldwide zoonosis. Here we labelled Cox. burnetii with biotin and used biotin-streptavidin affinity chromatography to isolate surface-exposed proteins (SEPs). Using two-dimensional electrophoresis combined with mass spectrometry, we identified 37 proteins through bioinformatics analysis. Thirty SEPs expressed in Escherichia coli (recombinant SEPs, rSEPs) were used to generate microarrays, which were probed with sera from mice experimentally infected with Cox. burnetii or sera from Q fever patients. Thirteen rSEPs were recognized as seroreactive, and the majority reacted with at least 50 % of the sera from mice infected with Cox. burnetii but not with sera from mice infected with Rickettsia rickettsii, R. heilongjiangensis, or R. typhi. Further, 13 proteins that reacted with sera from patients with Q fever did not react with sera from patients with brucellosis or mycoplasma pneumonia. Our results suggest that these seroreactive SEPs have potential as serodiagnostic antigens or as subunit vaccine antigens against Q fever.