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Valdebenito S, Ajasin D, Prideaux B, Eugenin EA. Correlative Imaging to Detect Rare HIV Reservoirs and Associated Damage in Tissues. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2807:93-110. [PMID: 38743223 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3862-0_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Correlative light-electron microscopy (CLEM) has evolved in the last decades, especially after significant developments in sample preparation, imaging acquisition, software, spatial resolution, and equipment, including confocal, live-cell, super-resolution, and electron microscopy (scanning, transmission, focused ion beam, and cryo-electron microscopy). However, the recent evolution of different laser-related techniques, such as mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) and laser capture microdissection, could further expand spatial imaging capabilities into high-resolution OMIC approaches such as proteomic, lipidomics, small molecule, and drug discovery. Here, we will describe a protocol to integrate the detection of rare viral reservoirs with imaging mass spectrometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvana Valdebenito
- Department of Neurobiology, The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, TX, USA
| | - David Ajasin
- Department of Neurobiology, The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Brendan Prideaux
- Department of Neurobiology, The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Eliseo A Eugenin
- Department of Neurobiology, The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB), Galveston, TX, USA.
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2
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Drugs of Abuse and Their Impact on Viral Pathogenesis. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122387. [PMID: 34960656 PMCID: PMC8707190 DOI: 10.3390/v13122387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Commonly misused substances such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, and opioids suppress immune responses and may impact viral pathogenesis. In recent years, illicit use of opioids has fueled outbreaks of several viral pathogens, including the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV). This review focuses on the myriad of mechanisms by which drugs of abuse impact viral replication and disease progression. Virus–drug interactions can accelerate viral disease progression and lead to increased risk of virus transmission.
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HIV-1 Tat and cocaine impact astrocytic energy reservoir influence on miRNA epigenetic regulation. Genomics 2021; 113:3461-3475. [PMID: 34418497 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2021.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Astrocytes are the primary regulator of energy metabolism in the central nervous system (CNS), and impairment of astrocyte's energy resource may trigger neurodegeneration. HIV infections and cocaine use are known to alter epigenetic modification, including miRNAs, which can target gene expression post-transcriptionally. However, miRNA-mediated astrocyte energy metabolism has not been delineated in HIV infection and cocaine abuse. Using next-generation sequencing (NGS), we identified a total of 1900 miRNAs, 64 were upregulated and 68 miRNAs were downregulated in the astrocytes by HIV-1 Tat with cocaine exposure. Moreover, miR-4727-3p, miR-5189-5p, miR-5090, and miR-6810-5p expressions were significantly impacted, and their gene targets were identified as VAMP2, NFIB, PPM1H, MEIS1, and PSD93 through the bioinformatic approach. In addition, the astrocytes treated with the nootropic drug piracetam protects these miRNAs. These findings provide evidence that the miRNAs in the astrocytes may be a potential biomarker and therapeutic target for HIV and cocaine abuse-induced neurodegeneration.
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4
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Doke M, Jeganathan V, McLaughlin JP, Samikkannu T. HIV-1 Tat and cocaine impact mitochondrial epigenetics: effects on DNA methylation. Epigenetics 2020; 16:980-999. [PMID: 33100130 PMCID: PMC8451453 DOI: 10.1080/15592294.2020.1834919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and the psychostimulant drug cocaine are known to induce epigenetic changes in DNA methylation that are linked with the severity of viral replication and disease progression, which impair neuronal functions. Increasing evidence suggests that changes in DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation occur in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and represent mitochondrial genome epigenetic modifications (mitoepigenetic modifications). These modifications likely regulate both mtDNA replication and gene expression. However, mtDNA methylation has not been studied extensively in the contexts of cocaine abuse and HIV-1 infection. In the present study, epigenetic factors changed the levels of the DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) DNMT1, DNMT3a, and DNMT3b, the Ten-eleven translocation (TET) enzymes 1, 2, and 3, and mitochondrial DNMTs (mtDNMTs) both in vitro and in vivo. These changes resulted in alterations in mtDNA methylation levels at CpG and non-CpG sites in human primary astrocytes as measured using targeted next-generation bisulphite sequencing (TNGBS). Moreover, mitochondrial methylation levels in the MT-RNR1, MT-ND5, MT-ND1, D-loop and MT-CYB regions of mtDNA were lower in the HIV-1 Tat and cocaine treatment groups than in the control group. In summary, the present findings suggest that mitoepigenetic modification in the human brain causes the mitochondrial dysfunction that gives rise to neuro-AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayur Doke
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Irma Lerma Rangel College of Pharmacy, Texas A&M University, Kingsville, TX, USA
| | - Venkatesh Jeganathan
- Department of Autoimmune and Musculoskeletal Disease, The Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, NY, USA
| | - Jay P McLaughlin
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Thangavel Samikkannu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Irma Lerma Rangel College of Pharmacy, Texas A&M University, Kingsville, TX, USA
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Brami-Cherrier K, Lewis RG, Cervantes M, Liu Y, Tognini P, Baldi P, Sassone-Corsi P, Borrelli E. Cocaine-mediated circadian reprogramming in the striatum through dopamine D2R and PPARγ activation. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4448. [PMID: 32895370 PMCID: PMC7477550 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18200-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Substance abuse disorders are linked to alteration of circadian rhythms, although the molecular and neuronal pathways implicated have not been fully elucidated. Addictive drugs, such as cocaine, induce a rapid increase of dopamine levels in the brain. Here, we show that acute administration of cocaine triggers reprogramming in circadian gene expression in the striatum, an area involved in psychomotor and rewarding effects of drugs. This process involves the activation of peroxisome protein activator receptor gamma (PPARγ), a nuclear receptor involved in inflammatory responses. PPARγ reprogramming is altered in mice with cell-specific ablation of the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) in the striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs) (iMSN-D2RKO). Administration of a specific PPARγ agonist in iMSN-D2RKO mice elicits substantial rescue of cocaine-dependent control of circadian genes. These findings have potential implications for development of strategies to treat substance abuse disorders. Drugs of abuse have been shown to perturb circadian rhythms. Here, the authors show in mice that cocaine exposure modulates circadian gene expression in the striatum through a previously unappreciated pathway that involves dopamine D2 receptors and the nuclear receptor PPARγ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Brami-Cherrier
- Center for Epigenetics and Metabolism, INSERM U1233, Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Robert G Lewis
- Center for Epigenetics and Metabolism, INSERM U1233, Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Marlene Cervantes
- Center for Epigenetics and Metabolism, INSERM U1233, Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Yu Liu
- Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Computer Science, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Paola Tognini
- Center for Epigenetics and Metabolism, INSERM U1233, Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Pierre Baldi
- Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Computer Science, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Paolo Sassone-Corsi
- Center for Epigenetics and Metabolism, INSERM U1233, Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.
| | - Emiliana Borrelli
- Center for Epigenetics and Metabolism, INSERM U1233, Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.
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Mitchell CM, El Jordi O, Yamamoto BK. Inflammatory mechanisms of abused drugs. ROLE OF INFLAMMATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL NEUROTOXICITY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.ant.2018.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Xu X, Li L, Liu Z, Yao X, Zhang X, Liu S, Liu L. Investigation of the inhibition effect of arachidonic acid on the core structure of the HIV-1 gp41. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2018; 161:377-382. [PMID: 30199809 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2018.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2018] [Revised: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 09/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The gp41 transmembrane domain of the envelope glycoprotein of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) modulates the conformation of the viral envelope spike. During the HIV fusion process, C-terminal heptad repeat (CHR, C34) wrap antiparallel to the N-terminal heptad repeat (NHR, N36) helices to form a stable six-helix bundle (6-HB) core structure, which brings the viral and cell membranes into close proximity for fusion. Therefore, inhibiting the formation of 6-HB is considered to be a key activity of an effective HIV-1 fusion inhibitor. The level of arachidonic acid (AA) is increased in HIV infected patients. Our study provides a new insight into the functional role of AA during the formation of HIV-1 gp41 6-HB. Native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (N-PAGE), enzyme-linked-immunosorbent serologic assay (ELISA) and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy were used to investigate the inhibition of AA for the formation of 6-HB. Molecular docking technique was adopted to explore the underlying mechanism. HIV-1 JR-FL (R5 strain) Envelope was adopted to determine the inhibition effect of AA. AA is shown to interfere with the formation of α-helical complexes of N36 and C34 by N-PAGE, ELISA and CD spectroscopy. The isotherm titration microcalorimetry (ITC) results indicate there is a single class of binding site on N36. ΔH and ΔS are -12.43 kJ mol-1 and 70.07 J mol-1 K-1, respectively, indicating hydrophobic interaction and electrostatic forces are the main acting forces. The molecular docking results manifest that AA interacts with the hydrophobic residues (Trp-571, Leu-568, Val-570 and Leu-576) and ionic interactions occur between Arg-579 and the -COOH of AA. The inhibitory activity of AA on HIV-1 JR-FL is quantified by 50% effective concentration (EC50) and 90% effective concentration (EC90), which are 31.42 ± 1.08 and 133.47 ± 18.10 μg mL-1, respectively. All the results indicate that AA is able to inhibit the formation of 6-HB but cannot disrupt the preformed 6-HB. Therefore, AA is a potential inhibitor for the viral fusion/entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Xu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China; Department of Pharmacy, The Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518033, China
| | - Lin Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China
| | - Zhen Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China
| | - Xiaojun Yao
- Department of Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Xuanxuan Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China
| | - Shuwen Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China.
| | - Lihong Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, China.
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Thangavel S, Mulet CT, Atluri VSR, Agudelo M, Rosenberg R, Devieux JG, Nair MPN. Oxidative Stress in HIV Infection and Alcohol Use: Role of Redox Signals in Modulation of Lipid Rafts and ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters. Antioxid Redox Signal 2018; 28:324-337. [PMID: 29132227 PMCID: PMC5743035 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2016.6830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection induces oxidative stress and alcohol use accelerates disease progression, subsequently causing immune dysfunction. However, HIV and alcohol impact on lipid rafts-mediated immune dysfunction remains unknown. In this study, we investigate the modulation by which oxidative stress induces reactive oxygen species (ROS) affecting redox expression, lipid rafts caveiloin-1, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, and transcriptional sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) gene and protein modification and how these mechanisms are associated with arachidonic acid (AA) metabolites in HIV positive alcohol users, and how they escalate immune dysfunction. RESULTS In both alcohol using HIV-positive human subjects and in vitro studies of alcohol with HIV-1 gp120 protein in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, increased ROS production significantly affected redox expression in glutathione synthetase (GSS), super oxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and subsequently impacted lipid rafts Cav-1, ABC transporters ABCA1, ABCG1, ABCB1, and ABCG4, and SREBP transcription. The increased level of rate-limiting enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl HMG-CoA reductase (HMGCR), subsequently, inhibited 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase (DHCR-7). Moreover, the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and lipoxygenase-5 (5-LOX) mRNA and protein modification tentatively increased the levels of prostaglandin E2 synthases (PGE2) in plasma when compared with either HIV or alcohol alone. INNOVATION This article suggests for the first time that the redox inhibition affects lipid rafts, ABC-transporter, and SREBP transcription and modulates AA metabolites, serving as an important intermediate signaling network during immune cell dysfunction in HIV-positive alcohol users. CONCLUSION These findings indicate that HIV infection induces oxidative stress and redox inhibition, affecting lipid rafts and ABC transports, subsequently upregulating AA metabolites and leading to immune toxicity, and further exacerbation with alcohol use. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 28, 324-337.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samikkannu Thangavel
- 1 Department of Immunology, Institute of NeuroImmune Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Florida International University , Miami, Florida
| | - Carmen T Mulet
- 1 Department of Immunology, Institute of NeuroImmune Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Florida International University , Miami, Florida
| | - Venkata S R Atluri
- 1 Department of Immunology, Institute of NeuroImmune Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Florida International University , Miami, Florida
| | - Marisela Agudelo
- 1 Department of Immunology, Institute of NeuroImmune Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Florida International University , Miami, Florida
| | - Rhonda Rosenberg
- 2 Department of Health Promotion & Disease Prevention, Robert Stempel School of Public Health, Florida International University , Miami, Florida
| | - Jessy G Devieux
- 2 Department of Health Promotion & Disease Prevention, Robert Stempel School of Public Health, Florida International University , Miami, Florida
| | - Madhavan P N Nair
- 1 Department of Immunology, Institute of NeuroImmune Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Florida International University , Miami, Florida
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Macrophages and Phospholipases at the Intersection between Inflammation and the Pathogenesis of HIV-1 Infection. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18071390. [PMID: 28661459 PMCID: PMC5535883 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18071390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Revised: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Persistent low grade immune activation and chronic inflammation are nowadays considered main driving forces of the progressive immunologic failure in effective antiretroviral therapy treated HIV-1 infected individuals. Among the factors contributing to this phenomenon, microbial translocation has emerged as a key driver of persistent immune activation. Indeed, the rapid depletion of gastrointestinal CD4+ T lymphocytes occurring during the early phases of infection leads to a deterioration of the gut epithelium followed by the translocation of microbial products into the systemic circulation and the subsequent activation of innate immunity. In this context, monocytes/macrophages are increasingly recognized as an important source of inflammation, linked to HIV-1 disease progression and to non-AIDS complications, such as cardiovascular disease and neurocognitive decline, which are currently main challenges in treated patients. Lipid signaling plays a central role in modulating monocyte/macrophage activation, immune functions and inflammatory responses. Phospholipase-mediated phospholipid hydrolysis leads to the production of lipid mediators or second messengers that affect signal transduction, thus regulating a variety of physiologic and pathophysiologic processes. In this review, we discuss the contribution of phospholipases to monocyte/macrophage activation in the context of HIV-1 infection, focusing on their involvement in virus-associated chronic inflammation and co-morbidities.
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14-3-3 α and 14-3-3 ζ contribute to immune responses in planarian Dugesia japonica. Gene 2017; 615:25-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2017.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Revised: 02/10/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Sander WJ, O'Neill HG, Pohl CH. Prostaglandin E 2 As a Modulator of Viral Infections. Front Physiol 2017; 8:89. [PMID: 28261111 PMCID: PMC5306375 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral infections are a major cause of infectious diseases worldwide. Inflammation and the immune system are the major host defenses against these viral infection. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), an eicosanoid generated by cyclooxygenases, has been shown to modulate inflammation and the immune system by regulating the expression/concentration of cytokines. The effect of PGE2 on viral infection and replication is cell type- and virus-family-dependent. The host immune system can be modulated by PGE2, with regards to immunosuppression, inhibition of nitrogen oxide (NO) production, inhibition of interferon (IFN) and apoptotic pathways, and inhibition of viral receptor expression. Furthermore, PGE2 can play a role in viral infection directly by increasing the production and release of virions, inhibiting viral binding and replication, and/or stimulating viral gene expression. PGE2 may also have a regulatory role in the induction of autoimmunity and in signaling via Toll-like receptors. In this review the known effects of PGE2 on the pathogenesis of various infections caused by herpes simplex virus, rotavirus, influenza A virus and human immunodeficiency virus as well the therapeutic potential of PGE2 are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Carolina H. Pohl
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free StateBloemfontein, South Africa
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Samikkannu T, Atluri VSR, Nair MPN. HIV and Cocaine Impact Glial Metabolism: Energy Sensor AMP-activated protein kinase Role in Mitochondrial Biogenesis and Epigenetic Remodeling. Sci Rep 2016; 6:31784. [PMID: 27535703 PMCID: PMC4989157 DOI: 10.1038/srep31784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV infection and cocaine use have been identified as risk factors for triggering neuronal dysfunction. In the central nervous system (CNS), energy resource and metabolic function are regulated by astroglia. Glia is the major reservoir of HIV infection and disease progression in CNS. However, the role of cocaine in accelerating HIV associated energy deficit and its impact on neuronal dysfunction has not been elucidated yet. The aim of this study is to elucidate the molecular mechanism of HIV associated neuropathogenesis in cocaine abuse and how it accelerates the energy sensor AMPKs and its subsequent effect on mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), BRSKs, CDC25B/C, MAP/Tau, Wee1 and epigenetics remodeling complex SWI/SNF. Results showed that cocaine exposure during HIV infection significantly increased the level of p24, reactive oxygen species (ROS), ATP-utilization and upregulated energy sensor AMPKs, CDC25B/C, MAP/Tau and Wee1 protein expression. Increased ROS production subsequently inhibits OCR/ECAR ratio and OXPHOS, and eventually upregulate epigenetics remodeling complex SWI/SNF in CHME-5 cells. These results suggest that HIV infection induced energy deficit and metabolic dysfunction is accelerated by cocaine inducing energy sensor AMPKs, mitochondrial biogenesis and chromatin remodeling complex SWI/SNF activation, which may lead to neuroAIDS disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thangavel Samikkannu
- Department of Immunology, Institute of NeuroImmune Pharmacology, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199, USA
| | - Venkata S R Atluri
- Department of Immunology, Institute of NeuroImmune Pharmacology, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199, USA
| | - Madhavan P N Nair
- Department of Immunology, Institute of NeuroImmune Pharmacology, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199, USA
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