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Abstract
Endogenous retrotransposons are considered the “molecular fossils” of ancient retroviral insertions. Several studies have indicated that host factors restrict both retroviruses and retrotransposons through different mechanisms. Type 1 long interspersed elements (LINE-1 or L1) are the only active retroelements that can replicate autonomously in the human genome. A recent study reported that LINE-1 retrotransposition is potently suppressed by BST2, a host restriction factor that prevents viral release mainly by physically tethering enveloped virions (such as HIV) to the surface of producer cells. However, no endoplasmic membrane structure has been associated with LINE-1 replication, suggesting that BST2 may utilize a distinct mechanism to suppress LINE-1. In this study, we showed that BST2 is a potent LINE-1 suppressor. Further investigations suggested that BST2 reduces the promoter activity of LINE-1 5′ untranslated region (UTR) and lowers the levels of LINE-1 RNA, proteins, and events during LINE-1 retrotransposition. Surprisingly, although BST2 apparently uses different mechanisms against HIV and LINE-1, two membrane-associated domains that are essential for BST2-mediated HIV tethering also proved important for BST2-induced inhibition of LINE-1 5′ UTR. Additionally, by suppressing LINE-1, BST2 prevented LINE-1-induced genomic DNA damage and innate immune activation. Taken together, our data uncovered the mechanism of BST2-mediated LINE-1 suppression and revealed new roles of BST2 as a promoter regulator, genome stabilizer, and innate immune suppressor. IMPORTANCE BST2 is a potent antiviral protein that suppresses the release of several enveloped viruses, mainly by tethering the envelope of newly synthesized virions and restraining them on the surface of producer cells. In mammalian cells, there are numerous DNA elements replicating through reverse transcription, among which LINE-1 is the only retroelement that can replicate autonomously. Although LINE-1 retrotransposition does not involve the participation of a membrane structure, BST2 has been reported as an efficient LINE-1 suppressor, suggesting a different mechanism for BST2-mediated LINE-1 inhibition and a new function for BST2 itself. We found that BST2 specifically represses the promoter activity of LINE-1 5′ UTR, resulting in decreased levels of LINE-1 transcription, translation, and subsequent retrotransposition. Additionally, by suppressing LINE-1 activity, BST2 maintains genome stability and regulates innate immune activation. These findings expand our understanding of BST2 and its biological significance.
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Bian S, Zhao Y, Li F, Lu S, He Z, Wang S, Bai X, Zhao D, Liu M, Wang J. Total ginsenosides induce autophagic cell death in cervical cancer cells accompanied by downregulation of bone marrow stromal antigen-2. Exp Ther Med 2021; 22:667. [PMID: 33986832 PMCID: PMC8112150 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2021.10099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Ginsenosides are important active components in Panax ginseng. In the present study, total ginsenosides (TGNs) were demonstrated to enhance autophagy by promoting acidic vacuole organelle formation, recruitment of enhanced green fluorescent protein-microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 and expression of autophagy-related factors in cervical cancer cell lines. TGN markedly increased the expression of p62 at the transcriptional level, but decreased p62 protein expression in the presence of actinomycin D. The autophagic regulatory effect was reversible. TGN (≤120 µg/ml) did not affect the proliferation of cervical cancer cells under normal culture conditions, but markedly inhibited the growth of serum-deprived cells. Treatment with an inhibitor of autophagy (3-methyladenine) impaired TGN-induced cell death. This suggested that TGN caused autophagic cell death. In addition, western blot analysis demonstrated that the protein level of bone marrow stromal antigen-2 (BST-2) was downregulated by TGN. Upregulation of BST-2 reduced cell death. The results of the combined actions of various monomeric ginsenosides in TGN provide the molecular basis to develop TGN as a promising candidate for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Bian
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130117, P.R. China
| | - Yue Zhao
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130117, P.R. China
| | - Fangyu Li
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130117, P.R. China
| | - Shuyan Lu
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130117, P.R. China
| | - Ziyan He
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 13012, P.R. China
| | - Siming Wang
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130117, P.R. China
| | - Xueyuan Bai
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130117, P.R. China
| | - Daqing Zhao
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130117, P.R. China
| | - Meichen Liu
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130117, P.R. China
| | - Jiawen Wang
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130117, P.R. China
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Wang J, Bian S, Wang S, Yang S, Zhang W, Zhao D, Liu M, Bai X. Ginsenoside Rh2 represses autophagy to promote cervical cancer cell apoptosis during starvation. Chin Med 2020; 15:118. [PMID: 33292331 PMCID: PMC7661217 DOI: 10.1186/s13020-020-00396-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cancer cells through autophagy-mediated recycling to meet the metabolic demands of growth and proliferation. The steroidal saponin 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh2 effectively inhibits the growth and survival of a variety of tumor cell lines and animal models, but the effects of Rh2 on autophagy remain elusive. Methods Cell viability was measured by CCK-8 (cell counting kit-8) assays. Apoptosis, ROS generation and mitochondrial membrane potential were analyzed by flow cytometry. Western blot analyses were used to determine changes in protein levels. Morphology of apoptotic cells and autophagosome accumulation were analyzed by DAPI staining and transmission electron microscopy. Autophagy induction was monitored by acidic vesicular organelle staining, EGFP-LC3 and mRFP-GFP-LC3 transfection. Atg7 siRNA and autophagy regulator was used to assess the effect of autophagy on apoptosis induced by G-Rh2. Results In this study, we found that low concentration G-Rh2 attenuated cancer cell growth and induced apoptosis upon serum-free starvation. Caspase 3 inhibitors failed to block apoptosis in G-Rh2-treated cells, indicating a caspase-independent mechanism. G-Rh2-treated cells in serum-deprived conditions showed impaired mitochondrial function, increased release and nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor, but little changes in the mitochondrial and cytoplasmic distributions of cytochrome C. Annexin A2 overexpression in 293T cells inhibited G-Rh2-induced apoptosis under serum-starved conditions. Meanwhile, G-Rh2 reduced lysosomal activity and inhibited the fusion of autophagosome and lysosome, leading to a block of autophagic flux. Knockdown Atg7 significantly inhibited autophagy and triggered AIF-induced apoptosis in serm free condition. The autophagy inducer significantly decreased the apoptosis levels of G-Rh2-treated cells in serum-free conditions. Conclusions Under nutrient deficient conditions, G-Rh2 represses autophagy in cervical cancer cells and enhanced apoptosis through an apoptosis-inducing factor mediated pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiawen Wang
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Boshuo Road 1035, Changchun, 130117, Jilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuai Bian
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Boshuo Road 1035, Changchun, 130117, Jilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Siming Wang
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Boshuo Road 1035, Changchun, 130117, Jilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Song Yang
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Boshuo Road 1035, Changchun, 130117, Jilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Wanying Zhang
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Boshuo Road 1035, Changchun, 130117, Jilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Daqing Zhao
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Boshuo Road 1035, Changchun, 130117, Jilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Meichen Liu
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Boshuo Road 1035, Changchun, 130117, Jilin, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xueyuan Bai
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Boshuo Road 1035, Changchun, 130117, Jilin, People's Republic of China.
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Wang J, Bian S, Liu M, Zhang X, Wang S, Bai X, Zhao D, Zhao Y. Cloning, identification, and functional analysis of bone marrow stromal cell antigen-2 from sika deer (Cervus nippon). Gene 2018; 661:133-138. [PMID: 29621585 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2018.03.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2017] [Revised: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BST-2(tetherin/CD317/HM1.24) has been identified as a cellular antiviral factor that inhibits the release of a wide range of enveloped viruses from infected cells. Orthologs of BST-2 have been identified in several species including humans, monkeys, cows, sheep, pigs, and mice. In this study, we cloned the gene and characterized the protein of the BST-2 homolog from sika deer (Cervus nippon). cnBST-2 shares 37.8% and 74.2% identity with the BST-2 homologs from Homo sapiens and Ovis aries, respectively. The extracellular domain of cnBST-2 has two putative N-linked glycosylation sites and three potential dimerization sites. cnBST-2 was shown to be expressed on the cell surface, like human BST-2. Exogenous expression of cnBST-2 resulted in potent inhibition of HIV-1 particle release in 293T cells; however, this activity resisted antagonism by HIV-1 Vpu. Moreover, cnBST-2 was not able to activate nuclear factor-κB, in contrast to human BST-2. This study is the first report of the isolation and characterization of BST-2 from C. nippon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiawen Wang
- Traditional Chinese Medicine and Biotechnology Research and Development Center, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuai Bian
- Traditional Chinese Medicine and Biotechnology Research and Development Center, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Meichun Liu
- Traditional Chinese Medicine and Biotechnology Research and Development Center, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Zhang
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Siming Wang
- Traditional Chinese Medicine and Biotechnology Research and Development Center, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Xueyuan Bai
- Traditional Chinese Medicine and Biotechnology Research and Development Center, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Daqing Zhao
- Traditional Chinese Medicine and Biotechnology Research and Development Center, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Zhao
- Traditional Chinese Medicine and Biotechnology Research and Development Center, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, People's Republic of China.
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Roy N, Pacini G, Berlioz-Torrent C, Janvier K. Characterization of E3 ligases involved in lysosomal sorting of the HIV-1 restriction factor BST2. J Cell Sci 2017; 130:1596-1611. [PMID: 28320822 PMCID: PMC5450231 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.195412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The cellular protein BST2 (also known as tetherin) acts as a major intrinsic antiviral protein that prevents the release of enveloped viruses by trapping nascent viral particles at the surface of infected cells. Viruses have evolved specific strategies to displace BST2 from viral budding sites in order to promote virus egress. In HIV-1, the accessory protein Vpu counters BST2 antiviral activity and promotes sorting of BST2 for lysosomal degradation. Vpu increases polyubiquitylation of BST2, a post-translation modification required for Vpu-induced BST2 downregulation, through recruitment of the E3 ligase complex SCF adaptors β-TrCP1 and β-TrCP2 (two isoforms encoded by BTRC and FBXW11, respectively). Herein, we further investigate the role of the ubiquitylation machinery in the lysosomal sorting of BST2. Using a small siRNA screen, we highlighted two additional regulators of BST2 constitutive ubiquitylation and sorting to the lysosomes: the E3 ubiquitin ligases NEDD4 and MARCH8. Interestingly, Vpu does not hijack the cellular machinery that is constitutively involved in BST2 ubiquitylation to sort BST2 for degradation in the lysosomes but instead promotes the recognition of BST2 by β-TrCP proteins. Altogether, our results provide further understanding of the mechanisms underlying BST2 turnover in cells. Highlighted Article: We identify two E3 ubiquitin ligases, NEDD4 and MARCH8, as regulators of BST2 (tetherin) – a protein that restricts viral release; we thus provide further understanding of the mechanisms underlying BST2 turnover in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Roy
- Inserm, U1016, Institut Cochin, Paris, France.,CNRS, UMR8104, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Grégory Pacini
- Inserm, U1016, Institut Cochin, Paris, France.,CNRS, UMR8104, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Clarisse Berlioz-Torrent
- Inserm, U1016, Institut Cochin, Paris, France.,CNRS, UMR8104, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Katy Janvier
- Inserm, U1016, Institut Cochin, Paris, France .,CNRS, UMR8104, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
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Han Z, Lv M, Shi Y, Yu J, Niu J, Yu XF, Zhang W. Mutation of Glycosylation Sites in BST-2 Leads to Its Accumulation at Intracellular CD63-Positive Vesicles without Affecting Its Antiviral Activity against Multivesicular Body-Targeted HIV-1 and Hepatitis B Virus. Viruses 2016; 8:62. [PMID: 26938549 PMCID: PMC4810252 DOI: 10.3390/v8030062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Revised: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BST-2/tetherin blocks the release of various enveloped viruses including HIV-1 with a “physical tethering” model. The detailed contribution of N-linked glycosylation to this model is controversial. Here, we confirmed that mutation of glycosylation sites exerted an effect of post-translational mis-trafficking, leading to an accumulation of BST-2 at intracellular CD63-positive vesicles. BST-2 with this phenotype potently inhibited the release of multivesicular body-targeted HIV-1 and hepatitis B virus, without affecting the co-localization of BST-2 with EEA1 and LAMP1. These results suggest that N-linked glycosylation of human BST-2 is dispensable for intracellular virion retention and imply that this recently discovered intracellular tethering function may be evolutionarily distinguished from the canonical antiviral function of BST-2 by tethering nascent virions at the cell surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhu Han
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China.
| | - Mingyu Lv
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China.
- Department of Hepatology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China.
| | - Ying Shi
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China.
| | - Jinghua Yu
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China.
| | - Junqi Niu
- Department of Hepatology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China.
| | - Xiao-Fang Yu
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China.
| | - Wenyan Zhang
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China.
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Wang W, Wang J, Qu M, Li X, Zhang J, Zhang H, Wu J, Yu B, Wu H, Kong W, Yu X. Viral Restriction Activity of Feline BST2 Is Independent of Its N-Glycosylation and Induction of NF-κB Activation. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138190. [PMID: 26379128 PMCID: PMC4574558 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BST2 (CD317, tetherin, HM1.24) is an interferon-inducible transmembrane protein which can directly inhibit the release of enveloped virus particles from infected cells, and its anti-viral activity is reported to be related to the specific topological arrangement of its four structural domains. The N-terminal cytoplasmic tail of feline BST2 (fBST2) is characterized by a shorter N-terminal region compared to those of other known homologs. In this study, we investigated the functional impact of modifying the cytoplasmic tail region of fBST2 and its molecular mechanism. The fBST2 protein with the addition of a peptide at the N-terminus retained anti-release activity against human immunodeficiency virus type-1 and pseudovirus based on feline immunodeficiency virus at a weaker level compared with the wild-type fBST2. However, the fBST2 protein with addition of a peptide internally in the ectodomain proximal to the GPI anchor still retained its anti-viral activity well. Notably, the N-glycosylation state and the cell surface level of the N-terminally modified variants were unlike those of the wild-type protein, while no difference was observed in their intracellular localizations. However, in contrast to human BST2, the wild-type fBST2 did not show the ability to activate NF-κB. Consistent with previous reports, our findings showed that adding a peptide in the cytoplasmic tail region of fBST2 may influence its anti-viral activity. The shorter N-terminal cytoplasmic region of fBST2 compared with human BST2 did not apparently affect its anti-viral activity, which is independent of its N-glycosylation and ability to activate NF-κB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiran Wang
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jiawen Wang
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
- Center for New Medicine Research, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Meng Qu
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaojun Li
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jingyao Zhang
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Haihong Zhang
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jiaxin Wu
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Bin Yu
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hui Wu
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wei Kong
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
- * E-mail: (WK); (XHY)
| | - Xianghui Yu
- National Engineering Laboratory for AIDS Vaccine, School of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, School of Life Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, People’s Republic of China
- * E-mail: (WK); (XHY)
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Lv M, Zhang B, Shi Y, Han Z, Zhang Y, Zhou Y, Zhang W, Niu J, Yu XF. Identification of BST-2/tetherin-induced hepatitis B virus restriction and hepatocyte-specific BST-2 inactivation. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11736. [PMID: 26119070 PMCID: PMC4484258 DOI: 10.1038/srep11736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BST-2/tetherin is an interferon-inducible antiviral protein that blocks the release of various enveloped viruses, including HIV-1. Hepatitis B virus (HBV), a major cause of liver disease, belongs to the Hepadnaviridae family of enveloped DNA viruses. Whether BST-2 regulates HBV production is largely unknown. In this report, we have demonstrated that HBV particle release is modulated by BST-2 in a cell type-dependent fashion. In HEK293T cells, ectopically expressed or interferon-induced BST-2 strongly inhibited HBV release. BST-2 co-localized with HBV surface protein at multivesicular bodies (MVBs) and physically interacted with HBV particles. However, exogenous BST-2-induced HBV restriction was weak in Huh-7 hepatoma cells, and the interferon-induced anti-HBV effect was independent of BST-2 induction in hepatic L02 cells. Notably, HBV could promote HIV-1 ΔVpu virus release from BST-2-positive HepG2 hepatoma cells but not HeLa cells, whereas Vpu failed to efficiently inhibit BST-2-induced HBV restriction. HBx exhibited an enhanced interaction and co-localization with BST-2 in hepatocytes. These observations indicate that BST-2 restricts HBV production at intracellular MVBs but is inactivated by HBV through a novel mechanism requiring hepatocyte-specific cellular co-factors or a hepatocyte-specific environment. Further understanding of BST-2-induced HBV restriction may provide new therapeutic targets for future HBV treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyu Lv
- 1] Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, P. R. China [2] Department of Hepatology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, P. R. China
| | - Biao Zhang
- 1] Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, P. R. China [2] School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, P. R. China
| | - Ying Shi
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, P. R. China
| | - Zhu Han
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, P. R. China
| | - Yan Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, P. R. China
| | - Yulai Zhou
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, P. R. China
| | - Wenyan Zhang
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, P. R. China
| | - Junqi Niu
- Department of Hepatology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Fang Yu
- 1] Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, P. R. China [2] Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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