The effect of online violent video games on levels of aggression

From "online brains" to "online lives": understanding the individualized impacts of Internet use across psychological, cognitive and social dimensions

In response to the mass adoption and extensive usage of Internet-enabled devices across the world, a major review published in this journal in 2019 examined the impact of Internet on human cognition, discussing the concepts and ideas behind the "online brain". Since then, the online world has become further entwined with the fabric of society, and the extent to which we use such technologies has continued to grow. Furthermore, the research evidence on the ways in which Internet usage affects the human mind has advanced considerably. In this paper, we sought to draw upon the latest data from large-scale epidemiological studies and systematic reviews, along with randomized controlled trials and qualitative research recently emerging on this topic, in order to now provide a multi-dimensional overview of the impacts of Internet usage across psychological, cognitive and societal outcomes. Within this, we detail the empirical evidence on how effects differ according to various factors such as age, gender, and usage types. We also draw from new research examining more experiential aspects of individuals' online lives, to understand how the specifics of their interactions with the Internet, and the impact on their lifestyle, determine the benefits or drawbacks of online time. Additionally, we explore how the nascent but intriguing areas of culturomics, artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and augmented reality are changing our understanding of how the Internet can interact with brain and behavior. Overall, the importance of taking an individualized and multi-dimensional approach to how the Internet affects mental health, cognition and social functioning is clear. Furthermore, we emphasize the need for guidelines, policies and initiatives around Internet usage to make full use of the evidence available from neuroscientific, behavioral and societal levels of research presented herein.

The effect of three violent videogame engagement states on aggressive behavior: A partial least squares structural equation modeling approach

Debate on violent games and their effect on aggressive behavior remains inconclusive. This study aims to study the predicting role of cognitive, affective, and behavioral engagement states in violent videogames on aggressive behavior, which remains nebulous to date. We visited gaming zones and administered the study survey to collect data from violent videogame users. We collected 208 valid responses that were further analyzed. The present study used SmartPLS (3.3.3) software to perform partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis in two stages. In the first stage, the measurement model assessment reported that cognitive, affective, behavioral, and aggressive behavior proved to be reliable reflective-formative composite constructs. Whereas, the second phase illustrated that cognitive engagement in violent videogames fails to impact aggressive behavior. The other two engagement states (affective and behavioral) in violent games showed a positive impact on aggressive behavior. Our study contributes to aggressive behavior literature by understanding how violent videogame engagement states impact aggressive behavior, which is crucial to recognize aggression so that steps can be taken toward addressing it. This study also contributes methodologically by utilizing the hierarchical component model (HCM) approach to estimate, specify, and validate the hierarchical structure of higher-order constructs (i.e., consumer violent videogame engagement dimensions (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) and aggressive behavior) as reflective-formative composite models.

Exploring the Mediating Effect of Psychological Engagement on the Relationship between Child-to-Parent Violence and Violent Video Games

Research into the effects of violent video games on levels of aggression has raised concerns that they may pose a significant social risk, especially among younger people. The objective of this study was to analyze, through structural equation models, the mediating role of psychological engagement in the relationship between the consumption of violent video games and child-to-parent violence (CPV) against the mother and the father. The sample consisted of 916 students from the third and fourth grades of compulsory secondary education, first and second grades of high school, and first cycle of vocational training (483 males and 433 females), of whom a total of 628 were video game players, aged between 13 and 19. The exposure to video games was assessed through an author-elaborated questionnaire, engagement was evaluated with the game engagement questionnaire, and CPV was assessed through the child-to-parent aggression questionnaire. The structural equation models indicated that exposure to violent video games was related to lower rates of CPV against both parents. Conversely, the flow (a sense of being in control, being one with activity, and experiencing distortions in the perception of time) dimension of engagement positively correlated with the level of CPV against the mother, whereas the flow and absorption (total engagement in the current experience) dimensions correlated with CPV against the father. In conclusion, the results confirm the role of violent video game consumption, reducing CPV rates against both parents, a role that is offset to the extent that these violent games provoke engagement in the user.

Video games for people with schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

Commercial video games are a vastly popular form of recreational activity. Whilst concerns persist regarding possible negative effects of video games, they have been suggested to provide cognitive benefits to users. They are also frequently employed as control interventions in comparisons of more complex cognitive or psychological interventions. If independently effective, video games - being both engaging and relatively inexpensive - could provide a much more cost-effective add-on intervention to standard treatment when compared to costly, cognitive interventions.

OBJECTIVES

To review the effects of video games (alone or as an additional intervention) compared to standard care alone or other interventions including, but not limited to, cognitive remediation or cognitive behavioural therapy for people with schizophrenia or schizophrenia-like illnesses.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Schizophrenia Group's Study-Based Register of Trials (March 2017, August 2018, August 2019).

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials focusing on video games for people with schizophrenia or schizophrenia-like illnesses.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Review authors extracted data independently. For binary outcomes we calculated risk ratio (RR) with its 95% confidence interval (CI) on an intention-to-treat basis. For continuous data we calculated the mean difference (MD) between groups and its CI. We employed a fixed-effect model for analyses. We assessed risk of bias for the included studies and created a 'Summary of findings' table using GRADE.

MAIN RESULTS

This review includes seven trials conducted between 2009 and 2018 (total = 468 participants, range 32 to 121). Study duration varied from six weeks to twelve weeks. All interventions in the included trials were given in addition to standard care, including prescribed medication. In trials video games tend to be the control for testing efficacy of complex, cognitive therapies; only two small trials evaluated commercial video games as the intervention. We categorised video game interventions into 'non-exergame' (played statically) and 'exergame' (the players use bodily movements to control the game). Our main outcomes of interest were clinically important changes in: general functioning, cognitive functioning, social functioning, mental state, quality of life, and physical fitness as well as clinically important adverse effects. We found no clear difference between non-exergames and cognitive remediation in general functioning scores (Strauss Carpenter Outcome Scale) (MD 0.42, 95% CI -0.62 to 1.46; participants = 86; studies = 1, very low-quality evidence) or social functioning scores (Specific Levels of Functioning Scale) (MD -3.13, 95% CI -40.17 to 33.91; participants = 53; studies = 1, very low-quality evidence). There was a clear difference favouring cognitive remediation for cognitive functioning (improved on at least one domain of MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery Test) (RR 0.58, 95% CI 0.34 to 0.99; participants = 42; studies = 1, low-quality evidence). For mental state, Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) overall scores showed no clear difference between treatment groups (MD 0.20, 95% CI -3.89 to 4.28; participants = 269; studies = 4, low-quality evidence). Quality of life ratings (Quality of Life Scale) similarly showed no clear intergroup difference (MD 0.01, 95% CI -0.40 to 0.42; participants = 87; studies = 1, very low-quality evidence). Adverse effects were not reported; we chose leaving the study early as a proxy measure. The attrition rate by end of treatment was similar between treatment groups (RR 0.96, 95% CI 0.87 to 1.06; participants = 395; studies = 5, low-quality evidence). One small trial compared exergames with standard care, but few outcomes were reported. No clear difference between interventions was seen for cognitive functioning (measured by MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery Test) (MD 2.90, 95% CI -1.27 to 7.07; participants = 33; studies = 1, low-quality evidence), however a benefit in favour of exergames was found for average change in physical fitness (aerobic fitness) (MD 3.82, 95% CI 1.75 to 5.89; participants = 33; studies = 1, low-quality evidence). Adverse effects were not reported; we chose leaving the study early as a proxy measure. The attrition rate by end of treatment was similar between treatment groups (RR 1.06, 95% CI 0.75 to 1.51; participants = 33; studies = 1). Another small trial compared exergames with non-exergames. Only one of our main outcomes was reported - physical fitness, which was measured by average time taken to walk 3 metres. No clear intergroup difference was identified at six-week follow-up (MD -0.50, 95% CI -1.17 to 0.17; participants = 28; studies = 1, very low-quality evidence). No trials reported adverse effects. We chose leaving the study early as a proxy outcome.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that non-exergames may have a less beneficial effect on cognitive functioning than cognitive remediation, but have comparable effects for all other outcomes. These data are from a small number of trials, and the evidence is graded as of low or very low quality and is very likely to change with more data. It is difficult to currently establish if the more sophisticated cognitive approaches do any more good - or harm - than 'static' video games for people with schizophrenia. Where players use bodily movements to control the game (exergames), there is very limited evidence suggesting a possible benefit of exergames compared to standard care in terms of cognitive functioning and aerobic fitness. However, this finding must be replicated in trials with a larger sample size and that are conducted over a longer time frame. We cannot draw any firm conclusions regarding the effects of video games until more high-quality evidence is available. There are ongoing studies that may provide helpful data in the near future.

Frustration and Violence in Mobile Video Games

Abstract. This study tests two competing hypotheses, one based on the general aggression model (GAM), the other on the self-determination theory (SDT). GAM suggests that the crucial factor in video games leading to increased aggressiveness is their violent content; SDT contends that gaming is associated with aggression because of the frustration of basic psychological needs. We used a 2×2 between-subject experimental design with a sample of 128 undergraduates. We assigned each participant randomly to one experimental condition defined by a particular video game, using four mobile video games differing in the degree of violence and in the level of their frustration-invoking gameplay. Aggressiveness was measured using the implicit association test (IAT), administered before and after the playing of a video game. We found no evidence of an association between implicit aggressiveness and violent content or frustrating gameplay.

Selling violent video game solutions: A look inside the APA's internal notes leading to the creation of the APA's 2005 resolution on violence in video games and interactive media

For decades politicians, parent groups, researchers, media outlets, professionals in various fields, and laymen have debated the effects playing violent video games have on children and adolescents. In academia, there also exists a divide as to whether violent video games cause children and adolescents to be aggressive, violent, and even engage in criminal behavior. Given inconsistencies in the data, it may be important to understand the ways and the reasons why professional organizations take a stance on the violent video game effects debate which may reflect greater expressed certitude than data can support. This piece focuses on the American Psychological Association's internal communications leading to the creation of their 2005 Resolution on Violence in Video Games and Interactive Media. These communications reveal that in this case, the APA attempted to "sell" itself as a solution to the perceived violent video game problem. The actions leading to the 2005 resolution are then compared to the actions of the APA's 2013-2015 Task Force on Violent Media. The implications and problems associated with the APA's actions regarding violent video games are addressed and discussed below.

Association between Internet gaming disorder and adult attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder and their correlates: Impulsivity and hostility

Internet gaming disorder (IGD) and attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are associated with impulsivity and hostility. This study evaluated the associations among ADHD, impulsivity, hostility, and IGD. We recruited 87 individuals with IGD and 87 controls without a history of IGD. All participants underwent a diagnostic interview based on the DSM-5 IGD criteria and DSM-IV-TR ADHD criteria and completed a questionnaire regarding impulsivity and hostility. The information from the diagnostic interviews was assessed using the clinical global impression scale. The results suggested that IGD is associated with ADHD among young adults and that young adults with both IGD and ADHD have higher impulsivity and hostility. Furthermore, impulsivity and hostility mediate the association between ADHD and IGD. Thus, ADHD is a common comorbidity of IGD among young adults, and impulsivity and hostility are major factors involved in comorbid ADHD and IGD. Young adults with ADHD should be thoroughly assessed, particularly for their impulsivity and hostility, and interventions for IGD should be developed.

The fallacy of placing confidence in confidence intervals

Interval estimates - estimates of parameters that include an allowance for sampling uncertainty - have long been touted as a key component of statistical analyses. There are several kinds of interval estimates, but the most popular are confidence intervals (CIs): intervals that contain the true parameter value in some known proportion of repeated samples, on average. The width of confidence intervals is thought to index the precision of an estimate; CIs are thought to be a guide to which parameter values are plausible or reasonable; and the confidence coefficient of the interval (e.g., 95 %) is thought to index the plausibility that the true parameter is included in the interval. We show in a number of examples that CIs do not necessarily have any of these properties, and can lead to unjustified or arbitrary inferences. For this reason, we caution against relying upon confidence interval theory to justify interval estimates, and suggest that other theories of interval estimation should be used instead.

Post-error action control is neurobehaviorally modulated under conditions of constant speeded response

Post-error slowing (PES) is an error recovery strategy that contributes to action control, and occurs after errors in order to prevent future behavioral flaws. Error recovery often malfunctions in clinical populations, but the relationship between behavioral traits and recovery from error is unclear in healthy populations. The present study investigated the relationship between impulsivity and error recovery by simulating a speeded response situation using a Go/No-go paradigm that forced the participants to constantly make accelerated responses prior to stimuli disappearance (stimulus duration: 250 ms). Neural correlates of post-error processing were examined using event-related potentials (ERPs). Impulsivity traits were measured with self-report questionnaires (BIS-11, BIS/BAS). Behavioral results demonstrated that the commission error for No-go trials was 15%, but PES did not take place immediately. Delayed PES was negatively correlated with error rates and impulsivity traits, showing that response slowing was associated with reduced error rates and changed with impulsivity. Response-locked error ERPs were clearly observed for the error trials. Contrary to previous studies, error ERPs were not significantly related to PES. Stimulus-locked N2 was negatively correlated with PES and positively correlated with impulsivity traits at the second post-error Go trial: larger N2 activity was associated with greater PES and less impulsivity. In summary, under constant speeded conditions, error monitoring was dissociated from post-error action control, and PES did not occur quickly. Furthermore, PES and its neural correlate (N2) were modulated by impulsivity traits. These findings suggest that there may be clinical and practical efficacy of maintaining cognitive control of actions during error recovery under common daily environments that frequently evoke impulsive behaviors.