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Li J, Wachsmuth LP, Xiao S, Condie BG, Manley NR. Foxn1 overexpression promotes thymic epithelial progenitor cell proliferation and mTEC maintenance, but does not prevent thymic involution. Development 2023; 150:dev200995. [PMID: 36975725 PMCID: PMC10263147 DOI: 10.1242/dev.200995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
The transcription factor FOXN1 is essential for fetal thymic epithelial cell (TEC) differentiation and proliferation. Postnatally, Foxn1 levels vary widely between TEC subsets, from low/undetectable in putative TEC progenitors to highest in differentiated TEC subsets. Correct Foxn1 expression is required to maintain the postnatal microenvironment; premature downregulation of Foxn1 causes a rapid involution-like phenotype, and transgenic overexpression can cause thymic hyperplasia and/or delayed involution. We investigated a K5.Foxn1 transgene that drives overexpression in mouse TECs, but causes neither hyperplasia nor delay or prevention of aging-related involution. Similarly, this transgene cannot rescue thymus size in Foxn1lacZ/lacZ mice, which undergo premature involution as a result of reduced Foxn1 levels. However, TEC differentiation and cortico-medullary organization are maintained with aging in both K5.Foxn1 and Foxn1lacZ/lacZ mice. Analysis of candidate TEC markers showed co-expression of progenitor and differentiation markers as well as increased proliferation in Plet1+ TECs associated with Foxn1 expression. These results demonstrate that the functions of FOXN1 in promoting TEC proliferation and differentiation are separable and context dependent, and suggest that modulating Foxn1 levels can regulate the balance of proliferation and differentiation in TEC progenitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Li
- Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | | | - Shiyun Xiao
- Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Brian G. Condie
- Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Nancy R. Manley
- Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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2
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Silva CS, Reis RL, Martins A, Neves NM. Recapitulation of Thymic Function by Tissue Engineering Strategies. Adv Healthc Mater 2021; 10:e2100773. [PMID: 34197034 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202100773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The thymus is responsible for the development and selection of T lymphocytes, which in turn also participate in the maturation of thymic epithelial cells. These events occur through the close interactions between hematopoietic stem cells and developing thymocytes with the thymic stromal cells within an intricate 3D network. The complex thymic microenvironment and function, and the current therapies to induce thymic regeneration or to overcome the lack of a functional thymus are herein reviewed. The recapitulation of the thymic function using tissue engineering strategies has been explored as a way to control the body's tolerance to external grafts and to generate ex vivo T cells for transplantation. In this review, the main advances in the thymus tissue engineering field are disclosed, including both scaffold- and cell-based strategies. In light of the current gaps and limitations of the developed systems, the design of novel biomaterials for this purpose with unique features is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina S. Silva
- 3B's Research Group I3Bs – Research Institute on Biomaterials Biodegradables and Biomimetics University of Minho Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine ICVS/3B's – PT Government Associate Laboratory AvePark, Parque da Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra 4805‐017 Barco Guimarães Portugal
| | - Rui L. Reis
- 3B's Research Group I3Bs – Research Institute on Biomaterials Biodegradables and Biomimetics University of Minho Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine ICVS/3B's – PT Government Associate Laboratory AvePark, Parque da Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra 4805‐017 Barco Guimarães Portugal
| | - Albino Martins
- 3B's Research Group I3Bs – Research Institute on Biomaterials Biodegradables and Biomimetics University of Minho Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine ICVS/3B's – PT Government Associate Laboratory AvePark, Parque da Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra 4805‐017 Barco Guimarães Portugal
| | - Nuno M. Neves
- 3B's Research Group I3Bs – Research Institute on Biomaterials Biodegradables and Biomimetics University of Minho Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine ICVS/3B's – PT Government Associate Laboratory AvePark, Parque da Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra 4805‐017 Barco Guimarães Portugal
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3
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Abstract
About two decades ago, cloning of the autoimmune regulator (AIRE) gene materialized one of the most important actors on the scene of self-tolerance. Thymic transcription of genes encoding tissue-specific antigens (ts-ags) is activated by AIRE protein and embodies the essence of thymic self-representation. Pathogenic AIRE variants cause the autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 1, which is a rare and complex disease that is gaining attention in research on autoimmunity. The animal models of disease, although not identically reproducing the human picture, supply fundamental information on mechanisms and extent of AIRE action: thanks to its multidomain structure, AIRE localizes to chromatin enclosing the target genes, binds to histones, and offers an anchorage to multimolecular complexes involved in initiation and post-initiation events of gene transcription. In addition, AIRE enhances mRNA diversity by favoring alternative mRNA splicing. Once synthesized, ts-ags are presented to, and cause deletion of the self-reactive thymocyte clones. However, AIRE function is not restricted to the activation of gene transcription. AIRE would control presentation and transfer of self-antigens for thymic cellular interplay: such mechanism is aimed at increasing the likelihood of engagement of the thymocytes that carry the corresponding T-cell receptors. Another fundamental role of AIRE in promoting self-tolerance is related to the development of thymocyte anergy, as thymic self-representation shapes at the same time the repertoire of regulatory T cells. Finally, AIRE seems to replicate its action in the secondary lymphoid organs, albeit the cell lineage detaining such property has not been fully characterized. Delineation of AIRE functions adds interesting data to the knowledge of the mechanisms of self-tolerance and introduces exciting perspectives of therapeutic interventions against the related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Perniola
- Department of Pediatrics, Neonatal Intensive Care, Vito Fazzi Regional Hospital, Lecce, Italy
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4
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Sheridan JM, Keown A, Policheni A, Roesley SN, Rivlin N, Kadouri N, Ritchie ME, Jain R, Abramson J, Heng TS, Gray DH. Thymospheres Are Formed by Mesenchymal Cells with the Potential to Generate Adipocytes, but Not Epithelial Cells. Cell Rep 2017; 21:934-942. [DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.09.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Revised: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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5
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Dai X, Huang S, He Z, Wu F, Ding R, Chen Y, Liang C, Wu Z. Dysfunction of the thymus in mice with hypertension. Exp Ther Med 2017; 13:1386-1392. [PMID: 28413482 PMCID: PMC5377285 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2017.4125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate thymus function in mice with hypertension. A total of 60 C57BL/6J mice were randomized into control, sham surgery and two-kidney, one-clip groups (n=20 in each). At 4 or 8 weeks after surgery, mice were sacrificed, and blood, spleens, kidneys and thymuses were harvested. The results of reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed that the mRNA levels of Forkhead box protein N1 (Foxn1) and autoimmune regulator (AIRE) in the thymus tissue of mice from the HTN group were significantly lower than those from the control group at 4 and 8 weeks (P<0.05). Foxn1 and AIRE expression was also reduced in the sham surgery group at 4 weeks after surgery, but had recovered 4 weeks later. Similar results were observed for the expression of signal-joint T cell receptor excision circles and the percentages of T cell subsets. The present study indicates that impaired thymus function is associated with hypertension in mice, which suggests that thymus function may be a novel target for the treatment of patients with hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianliang Dai
- Department of Cardiology, Changzheng Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, P.R. China
| | - Shuaibo Huang
- Department of Cardiology, Changzheng Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, P.R. China
| | - Zhiqing He
- Department of Cardiology, Changzheng Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, P.R. China
| | - Feng Wu
- Department of Cardiology, Changzheng Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, P.R. China
| | - Ru Ding
- Department of Cardiology, Changzheng Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, P.R. China
| | - Yihong Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Changzheng Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, P.R. China
| | - Chun Liang
- Department of Cardiology, Changzheng Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, P.R. China
| | - Zonggui Wu
- Department of Cardiology, Changzheng Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, P.R. China
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6
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Calo N, Ramadori P, Sobolewski C, Romero Y, Maeder C, Fournier M, Rantakari P, Zhang FP, Poutanen M, Dufour JF, Humar B, Nef S, Foti M. Stress-activated miR-21/miR-21* in hepatocytes promotes lipid and glucose metabolic disorders associated with high-fat diet consumption. Gut 2016; 65:1871-1881. [PMID: 27222533 DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2015-310822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE miR-21 is an oncomir highly upregulated in hepatocellular carcinoma and in early stages of liver diseases characterised by the presence of steatosis. Whether upregulation of miR-21 contributes to hepatic metabolic disorders and their progression towards cancer is unknown. This study aims at investigating the role of miR-21/miR-21* in early stages of metabolic liver disorders associated with diet-induced obesity (DIO). DESIGN Constitutive miR-21/miR-21* knockout (miR21KO) and liver-specific miR-21/miR-21* knockout (LImiR21KO) mice were generated. Mice were then fed with high-fat diet (HFD) and alterations of the lipid and glucose metabolism were investigated. Serum and ex vivo explanted liver tissue were analysed. RESULTS Under normal breeding conditions and standard diet, miR-21/miR-21* deletion in mice was not associated with any detectable phenotypic alterations. However, when mice were challenged with an obesogenic diet, glucose intolerance, steatosis and adiposity were improved in mice lacking miR-21/miR-21*. Deletion of miR-21/miR-21* specifically in hepatocytes led to similar improvements in mice fed an HFD, indicating a crucial role for hepatic miR-21/miR-21* in metabolic disorders associated with DIO. Further molecular analyses demonstrated that miR-21/miR-21* deletion in hepatocytes increases insulin sensitivity and modulates the expression of multiple key metabolic transcription factors involved in fatty acid uptake, de novo lipogenesis, gluconeogenesis and glucose output. CONCLUSIONS Hepatic miR-21/miR-21* deficiency prevents glucose intolerance and steatosis in mice fed an obesogenic diet by altering the expression of several master metabolic regulators. This study points out miR-21/miR-21* as a potential therapeutic target for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and the metabolic syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Calo
- Department of Cell Physiology and Metabolism, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Pierluigi Ramadori
- Department of Cell Physiology and Metabolism, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Cyril Sobolewski
- Department of Cell Physiology and Metabolism, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Yannick Romero
- Department of Genetic Medicine and Development, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Christine Maeder
- Department of Cell Physiology and Metabolism, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Margot Fournier
- Department of Cell Physiology and Metabolism, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Pia Rantakari
- MediCity Research Laboratory, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Department of Physiology and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Fu-Ping Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Matti Poutanen
- Department of Physiology and Turku Center for Disease Modeling, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | | | - Bostjan Humar
- Hepatology, Department of Clinical Research, University of Berne, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Serge Nef
- Department of Genetic Medicine and Development, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Michelangelo Foti
- Department of Cell Physiology and Metabolism, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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7
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Scalea JR, Hickman JB, Moore DJ, Brayman KL. An overview of the necessary thymic contributions to tolerance in transplantation. Clin Immunol 2016; 173:S1521-6616(16)30382-5. [PMID: 27989896 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2016.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/22/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The thymus is important for the development of the immune system. However, aging leads to predictable involution of the thymus and immunodeficiency. These immunodeficiencies may be rectified with thymic rejuvenation. Atrophy of the thymus is governed by a complex interplay of molecular, cytokine and hormonal factors. Herein we review the interaction of these factors across age and how they may be targeted for thymic rejuvenation. We further discuss the growing pre-clinical evidence defining the necessary and sufficient contributions of the thymus to successful tolerance induction in transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph R Scalea
- Division of Transplantation, Department of Surgery, University of Maryland, United States.
| | - John B Hickman
- School of Medicine, University of Virginia, United States
| | - Daniel J Moore
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University, United States
| | - Kenneth L Brayman
- School of Medicine, University of Virginia, United States; Division of Transplantation, Department of Surgery, University of Virginia, United States
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8
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Vaidya HJ, Briones Leon A, Blackburn CC. FOXN1 in thymus organogenesis and development. Eur J Immunol 2016; 46:1826-37. [PMID: 27378598 PMCID: PMC4988515 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201545814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Development of the primary T-cell repertoire takes place in the thymus. The linked processes of T-cell differentiation and T-cell repertoire selection each depend on interactions between thymocytes and thymic stromal cells; in particular, with the epithelial cells of the cortical and medullary thymic compartments (cortical and medullary thymic epithelial cells; cTECs and mTECs, respectively). The importance of the thymic epithelial cell lineage in these processes was revealed in part through analysis of nude (nu/nu) mice, which are congenitally hairless and athymic. The nude phenotype results from null mutation of the forkhead transcription factor FOXN1, which has emerged as a pivotal regulator both of thymus development and homeostasis. FOXN1 has been shown to play critical roles in thymus development, function, maintenance, and even regeneration, which positions it as a master regulator of thymic epithelial cell (TEC) differentiation. In this review, we discuss current understanding of the regulation and functions of FOXN1 throughout thymus ontogeny, from the earliest stages of organogenesis through homeostasis to age-related involution, contextualising its significance through reference to other members of the wider Forkhead family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harsh Jayesh Vaidya
- MRC Centre for Regenerative MedicineInstitute for Stem Cell ResearchSchool of Biological SciencesEdinburghUK
| | - Alberto Briones Leon
- MRC Centre for Regenerative MedicineInstitute for Stem Cell ResearchSchool of Biological SciencesEdinburghUK
| | - C. Clare Blackburn
- MRC Centre for Regenerative MedicineInstitute for Stem Cell ResearchSchool of Biological SciencesEdinburghUK
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9
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Bredenkamp N, Jin X, Liu D, O'Neill KE, Manley NR, Blackburn CC. Construction of a functional thymic microenvironment from pluripotent stem cells for the induction of central tolerance. Regen Med 2016; 10:317-29. [PMID: 25933240 DOI: 10.2217/rme.15.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The thymus is required for generation of a self-tolerant, self-restricted T-cell repertoire. The capacity to manipulate or replace thymus function therapeutically would be beneficial in a variety of clinical settings, including for improving recovery following bone marrow transplantation, restoring immune system function in the elderly and promoting tolerance to transplanted organs or cells. An attractive strategy would be transplantation of thymus organoids generated from cells produced in vitro, for instance from pluripotent stem cells. Here, we review recent progress toward this goal, focusing on advances in directing differentiation of pluripotent stem cells to thymic epithelial cells, a key cell type of the thymic stroma, and related direct reprogramming strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Bredenkamp
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell Research, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, SCRM Building, 5 Little France Drive, Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, UK
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10
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Adult Thymic Medullary Epithelium Is Maintained and Regenerated by Lineage-Restricted Cells Rather Than Bipotent Progenitors. Cell Rep 2015; 13:1432-1443. [PMID: 26549457 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Revised: 08/24/2015] [Accepted: 10/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Medullary thymic epithelial cells (mTECs) play an essential role in establishing self-tolerance in T cells. mTECs originate from bipotent TEC progenitors that generate both mTECs and cortical TECs (cTECs), although mTEC-restricted progenitors also have been reported. Here, we report in vivo fate-mapping analysis of cells that transcribe β5t, a cTEC trait expressed in bipotent progenitors, during a given period in mice. We show that, in adult mice, most mTECs are derived from progenitors that transcribe β5t during embryogenesis and the neonatal period up to 1 week of age. The contribution of adult β5t(+) progenitors was minor even during injury-triggered regeneration. Our results further demonstrate that adult mTEC-restricted progenitors are derived from perinatal β5t(+) progenitors. These results indicate that the adult thymic medullary epithelium is maintained and regenerated by mTEC-lineage cells that pass beyond the bipotent stage during early ontogeny.
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11
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Hamazaki Y. Adult thymic epithelial cell (TEC) progenitors and TEC stem cells: Models and mechanisms for TEC development and maintenance. Eur J Immunol 2015; 45:2985-93. [PMID: 26362014 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201545844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 09/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The thymus is the primary lymphoid organ for generating self-restricted and self-tolerant functional T cells. Its two distinct anatomical regions, the cortex and the medulla, are involved in positive and negative selection, respectively. Thymic epithelial cells (TECs) constitute the framework of this tissue and function as major stromal components. Extensive studies for more than a decade have revealed how TECs are generated during organogenesis; progenitors specific for medullary TECs (mTECs) and cortical TECs (cTECs) as well as bipotent progenitors for both lineages have been identified, and the signaling pathways required for the development and maturation of mTECs have been elucidated. However, little is known about the initial commitment of mTECs and cTECs during ontogeny, and how regeneration of both lineages is sustained in the postnatal/adult thymus. Recently, stem cell activities in TECs have been demonstrated, and TEC progenitors have been identified in the postnatal thymus. In this review, recent advances in studying the development and maintenance of TECs are summarized, and the possible mechanisms of thymic regeneration and involution are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko Hamazaki
- Department of Immunology and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan
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12
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Fan Y, Tajima A, Goh SK, Geng X, Gualtierotti G, Grupillo M, Coppola A, Bertera S, Rudert WA, Banerjee I, Bottino R, Trucco M. Bioengineering Thymus Organoids to Restore Thymic Function and Induce Donor-Specific Immune Tolerance to Allografts. Mol Ther 2015; 23:1262-1277. [PMID: 25903472 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2015.77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 04/05/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the major obstacles in organ transplantation is to establish immune tolerance of allografts. Although immunosuppressive drugs can prevent graft rejection to a certain degree, their efficacies are limited, transient, and associated with severe side effects. Induction of thymic central tolerance to allografts remains challenging, largely because of the difficulty of maintaining donor thymic epithelial cells in vitro to allow successful bioengineering. Here, the authors show that three-dimensional scaffolds generated from decellularized mouse thymus can support thymic epithelial cell survival in culture and maintain their unique molecular properties. When transplanted into athymic nude mice, the bioengineered thymus organoids effectively promoted homing of lymphocyte progenitors and supported thymopoiesis. Nude mice transplanted with thymus organoids promptly rejected skin allografts and were able to mount antigen-specific humoral responses against ovalbumin on immunization. Notably, tolerance to skin allografts was achieved by transplanting thymus organoids constructed with either thymic epithelial cells coexpressing both syngeneic and allogenic major histocompatibility complexes, or mixtures of donor and recipient thymic epithelial cells. Our results demonstrate the technical feasibility of restoring thymic function with bioengineered thymus organoids and highlight the clinical implications of this thymus reconstruction technique in organ transplantation and regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Fan
- Institute of Cellular Therapeutics, Allegheny Health Network, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Asako Tajima
- Institute of Cellular Therapeutics, Allegheny Health Network, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Saik Kia Goh
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Pittsburgh School of Engineering, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Xuehui Geng
- Division of Immunogenetics, Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Giulio Gualtierotti
- Division of Immunogenetics, Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Maria Grupillo
- Division of Immunogenetics, Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Antonina Coppola
- Division of Immunogenetics, Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA; Current address: Section of Endocrinology, Dipartimento Biomedico di Medicina Interna e Specialistica (DIBIMIS), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Suzanne Bertera
- Institute of Cellular Therapeutics, Allegheny Health Network, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - William A Rudert
- Institute of Cellular Therapeutics, Allegheny Health Network, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Ipsita Banerjee
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Pittsburgh School of Engineering, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Rita Bottino
- Institute of Cellular Therapeutics, Allegheny Health Network, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Massimo Trucco
- Institute of Cellular Therapeutics, Allegheny Health Network, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.
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