1
|
Mahanta PJ, Lhouvum K. Plasmodium falciparum proteases as new drug targets with special focus on metalloproteases. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2024; 258:111617. [PMID: 38554736 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2024.111617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Malaria poses a significant global health threat particularly due to the prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum infection. With the emergence of parasite resistance to existing drugs including the recently discovered artemisinin, ongoing research seeks novel therapeutic avenues within the malaria parasite. Proteases are promising drug targets due to their essential roles in parasite biology, including hemoglobin digestion, merozoite invasion, and egress. While exploring the genomic landscape of Plasmodium falciparum, it has been revealed that there are 92 predicted proteases, with only approximately 14 of them having been characterized. These proteases are further distributed among 26 families grouped into five clans: aspartic proteases, cysteine proteases, metalloproteases, serine proteases, and threonine proteases. Focus on metalloprotease class shows further role in organelle processing for mitochondria and apicoplasts suggesting the potential of metalloproteases as viable drug targets. Holistic understanding of the parasite intricate life cycle and identification of potential drug targets are essential for developing effective therapeutic strategies against malaria and mitigating its devastating global impact.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Kimjolly Lhouvum
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology, Arunachal Pradesh, India.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Sharma I, Chen C, Daraji D, Horn JR, Hagen TJ. Novel Inhibitors of Rickettsia prowazekii Methionine Aminopeptidase from the Malaria Box. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2023; 87:129281. [PMID: 37031729 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2023.129281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023]
Abstract
Methionine aminopeptidases (MetAp) are dinuclear metalloenzymes found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes that catalyze the hydrolysis of the N-terminal methionine residue from nascent proteins, an important post-translational modification, which makes it an attractive target for drug discovery. Rickettsia prowazekii (Rp) is an obligate pathogen and causative agent of epidemic typhus and typhus fever. In our ongoing search for anti-rickettsial agents we screened 400 compounds from the Malaria Box for inhibition of RpMetAp1 and discovered 12 compounds that inhibited the enzyme with IC50 values ranging from 800 nM to 22 μM. These inhibitors are from eleven different chemical series and represent leads that can be used to discover more potent and efficacious anti-rickettsial agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ishpriya Sharma
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb IL 60115, USA
| | - Congling Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb IL 60115, USA
| | - Drashti Daraji
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb IL 60115, USA
| | - James R Horn
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb IL 60115, USA
| | - Timothy J Hagen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb IL 60115, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Pascual Alonso I, Rivera Méndez L, Almeida García F, Valdés-Tresanco ME, Alonso Bosch R, Perera WH, Arrebola Sánchez Y, Bergado G, Sánchez Ramírez B, Charli JL. Bufadienolides preferentially inhibit aminopeptidase N among mammalian metallo-aminopeptidases; relationship with effects on human melanoma MeWo cells. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 229:825-837. [PMID: 36592847 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.12.280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Bufadienolides are steroids that inhibit Na+/K+-ATPase; recent evidence shows that bufalin inhibits the activity of porcine aminopeptidase N (pAPN). We evaluated the selectivity of some bufadienolides on metallo-aminopeptidases. Among the enzymes of the M1 and M17 families, pAPN and porcine aminopeptidase A (pAPA) were the only targets of some bufadienolides. ѱ-bufarenogin, telocinobufagin, marinobufagin, bufalin, cinobufagin, and bufogenin inhibited the activity of pAPN in a dose-dependent manner in the range of 10-7-10-6 M. The inhibition mechanism was classical reversible noncompetitive for telocinobufagin, bufalin and cinobufagin. Bufogenin had the lowest Ki value and a non-competitive behavior. pAPA activity was inhibited by ѱ-bufarenogin, cinobufagin, and bufogenin, with a classical competitive type of inhibition. The models of enzyme-inhibitor complexes agreed with the non-competitive type of inhibition of pAPN by telocinobufagin, bufalin, cinobufagin, and bufogenin. Since APN is a target in cancer therapy, we tested the effect of bufadienolides on the MeWo APN+ human melanoma cell line; they induced cell death, but we obtained scant evidence that inhibition of APN contributed to their effect. Thus, APN is a selective target of some bufadienolides, and we suggest that inhibition of APN activity by bufadienolides is not a major contributor to their antiproliferative properties in MeWo cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Mario Ernesto Valdés-Tresanco
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Cuba; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Canada
| | - Roberto Alonso Bosch
- Museo de Historia Natural Felipe Poey, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Cuba
| | - Wilmer H Perera
- CAMAG Scientific, Inc., 515 Cornelius Harnett Dr, Wilmington, NC 28401d, United States of America
| | | | | | | | - Jean-Louis Charli
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cuernavaca, Mexico
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Structure-based development of potent Plasmodium falciparum M1 and M17 aminopeptidase selective and dual inhibitors via S1'-region optimisation. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 248:115051. [PMID: 36634455 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.115051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Malaria remains a global health threat and growing resistance to artemisinin-based therapies calls for therapeutic agents with novel mechanisms of action. The Plasmodium spp M1 and M17 metalloaminopeptidases have been identified as attractive new antimalarial drug targets as inhibition of these enzymes results in antiplasmodial activity. Previously identified novel hydroxamic acid 2 as a moderate inhibitor of PfA-M1 and PfA-M17 and a potent inhibitor of P. falciparum. This study has sought to improve the enzymatic inhibitory properties in addition to increasing the drug-likeness of this scaffold by introducing polar moieties into the S1' region of the active site. Structural biology studies on the co-crystallised structures of potent dual-inhibitor 9aa bound to PfA-M1 and PfA-M17 have revealed that there are few direct interactions between the inhibitor and the S1' domain of these enzymes. Structure-based compound design led to the identification of a variety of novel hydroxamic acids that show improved inhibitory activity against PfA-M1 and PfA-M17, in addition to displaying antiplasmodial activity. Notably, compounds with substitutions on the aniline ring resulted in a loss of potency (Ki > 500 nM) toward PfA-M1 and PfA-M17. ioisosteric replacement of the S1-region biaryl ring system with a bromophenyl moiety resulted in increased potency compared to parent 9aa. Elaboration of 9aa to bioisosterically replace the S1 moiety with an aryl bromide, combined with substituted anilines has resulted in potent selective PfA-M1 inhibitors which show strong activity against Pf-3D7, with meta- and para-fluoroaniline groups of 15ag and 15ah forming hydrogen-bonds with residues within the active site. These findings establish the importance of the previously under-utilised S1' domain and will aid the design of future PfA-M1 and PfA-M17 inhibitors.
Collapse
|
5
|
Aguado ME, Izquierdo M, González-Matos M, Varela AC, Méndez Y, Del Rivero MA, Rivera DG, González-Bacerio J. Parasite Metalo-aminopeptidases as Targets in Human Infectious Diseases. Curr Drug Targets 2023; 24:416-461. [PMID: 36825701 DOI: 10.2174/1389450124666230224140724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 12/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parasitic human infectious diseases are a worldwide health problem due to the increased resistance to conventional drugs. For this reason, the identification of novel molecular targets and the discovery of new chemotherapeutic agents are urgently required. Metalo- aminopeptidases are promising targets in parasitic infections. They participate in crucial processes for parasite growth and pathogenesis. OBJECTIVE In this review, we describe the structural, functional and kinetic properties, and inhibitors, of several parasite metalo-aminopeptidases, for their use as targets in parasitic diseases. CONCLUSION Plasmodium falciparum M1 and M17 aminopeptidases are essential enzymes for parasite development, and M18 aminopeptidase could be involved in hemoglobin digestion and erythrocyte invasion and egression. Trypanosoma cruzi, T. brucei and Leishmania major acidic M17 aminopeptidases can play a nutritional role. T. brucei basic M17 aminopeptidase down-regulation delays the cytokinesis. The inhibition of Leishmania basic M17 aminopeptidase could affect parasite viability. L. donovani methionyl aminopeptidase inhibition prevents apoptosis but not the parasite death. Decrease in Acanthamoeba castellanii M17 aminopeptidase activity produces cell wall structural modifications and encystation inhibition. Inhibition of Babesia bovis growth is probably related to the inhibition of the parasite M17 aminopeptidase, probably involved in host hemoglobin degradation. Schistosoma mansoni M17 aminopeptidases inhibition may affect parasite development, since they could participate in hemoglobin degradation, surface membrane remodeling and eggs hatching. Toxoplasma gondii M17 aminopeptidase inhibition could attenuate parasite virulence, since it is apparently involved in the hydrolysis of cathepsin Cs- or proteasome-produced dipeptides and/or cell attachment/invasion processes. These data are relevant to validate these enzymes as targets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mirtha E Aguado
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Maikel Izquierdo
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Maikel González-Matos
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Ana C Varela
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Yanira Méndez
- Center for Natural Products Research, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Havana, Zapata y G, 10400, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Maday A Del Rivero
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Daniel G Rivera
- Center for Natural Products Research, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Havana, Zapata y G, 10400, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Jorge González-Bacerio
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, calle 25 #455 entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Looker O, Dans MG, Bullen HE, Sleebs BE, Crabb BS, Gilson PR. The Medicines for Malaria Venture Malaria Box contains inhibitors of protein secretion in
Plasmodium falciparum
blood stage parasites. Traffic 2022; 23:442-461. [PMID: 36040075 PMCID: PMC9543830 DOI: 10.1111/tra.12862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum parasites which cause malaria, traffic hundreds of proteins into the red blood cells (RBCs) they infect. These exported proteins remodel their RBCs enabling host immune evasion through processes such as cytoadherence that greatly assist parasite survival. As resistance to all current antimalarial compounds is rising new compounds need to be identified and those that could inhibit parasite protein secretion and export would both rapidly reduce parasite virulence and ultimately lead to parasite death. To identify compounds that inhibit protein export we used transgenic parasites expressing an exported nanoluciferase reporter to screen the Medicines for Malaria Venture Malaria Box of 400 antimalarial compounds with mostly unknown targets. The most potent inhibitor identified in this screen was MMV396797 whose application led to export inhibition of both the reporter and endogenous exported proteins. MMV396797 mediated blockage of protein export and slowed the rigidification and cytoadherence of infected RBCs—modifications which are both mediated by parasite‐derived exported proteins. Overall, we have identified a new protein export inhibitor in P. falciparum whose target though unknown, could be developed into a future antimalarial that rapidly inhibits parasite virulence before eliminating parasites from the host.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Madeline G. Dans
- Burnet Institute Melbourne Australia
- School of Medicine Deakin University Geelong Australia
| | - Hayley E. Bullen
- Burnet Institute Melbourne Australia
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology University of Melbourne Melbourne Australia
| | - Brad E. Sleebs
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research Parkville Victoria Australia
- Department of Medical Biology The University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Brendan S. Crabb
- Burnet Institute Melbourne Australia
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology University of Melbourne Melbourne Australia
- Department of Immunology and Pathology Monash University Melbourne Australia
| | - Paul R. Gilson
- Burnet Institute Melbourne Australia
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology University of Melbourne Melbourne Australia
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Pomun T, Wonginta P, Kubera A. Malaria Box Compounds against Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) Carboxypeptidase B Activity to Block Malaria Transmission. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2022; 59:1355-1362. [PMID: 35522203 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjac043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Carboxypeptidase B (CPB) plays an important role in blood digestion in mosquitos, aiding the release of free amino acids. Anopheles CPB is a target to block malaria transmission because it facilitates Plasmodium invasion of the mosquito midgut. Our study aimed to discover inhibitors of Anopheles CPB to prevent Plasmodium development in the mosquito. The Anopheles gambiae cpb (Agcpb) gene without a signal sequence was cloned into the pET28b expression vector. The recombinant AgCPB protein was expressed in E. coli BL21(DE3) within inclusion bodies after induction with 0.5 mM isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside at 37°C for 4 h. The protein pellet was dissolved in 6 M urea, purified by affinity chromatography, and dialyzed in reaction buffer. The refolded recombinant AgCPB could digest the hippuryl-arginine substrate similarly to that of the commercial porcine pancreas CPB. The 20 top-scoring malaria box compounds from the virtual-screening results were then chosen for an in vitro inhibition assay against AgCPB. Four of the 20 malaria box compounds could inhibit AgCPB activity. The compound MMV007591 was the most potent inhibitor with an IC50 at 0.066 µM. The results indicate that these candidate compounds may be utilized in drug development against mosquito CPB activity to curb malaria transmission.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tippawan Pomun
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Phattaradanai Wonginta
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Anchanee Kubera
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
- Centre for Advanced Studies in Tropical Natural Resources, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Sharma S, Tyagi R, Srivastava M, Rani K, Kumar D, Asthana S, Raj VS. Identification and validation of potent inhibitor of Escherichia coli DHFR from MMV pathogen box. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2022:1-10. [PMID: 35652895 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2022.2080113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The present study is conducted to find the solution of rising antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Escherichia coli which is a pathogen responsible for fatal systemic infections in human and animals. The enzyme dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) is found in all organisms. In this study DHFR of E. coli (ec-DHFR) and human DHFR (h-DHFR) is targeted by novel chemical entities (NCE) from the Pathogen box of Medicines for Malaria Venture, Switzerland (MMV) using molecular modelling. The in-silico studies were further validated by in-vitro assays. The virtual screening of 400 MMV compounds was conducted using PyRx standard tool followed by manual docking of selected compounds by Autodock vina and Ligplot program. The in-silico studies showed good binding energy and strong hydrogen bond in docking of MMV675968 with ec-DHFR and no hydrogen bond with h-DHFR. This was further validated by the Molecular dynamic studies that revealed high binding free energy in ec-DHFR and in-vitro assays that produced good synergy in combination study of MMV675968 with last line (meropenem) and last resort (colistin) antibiotics. The extensive MD simulation and energetic analysis thus concludes that MMV675968 targets ec-DHFR. The combination studies were conducted with MMV675968 and FDA approved drugs against a panel of multidrug resistant Escherichia coli isolates. The synergistic results obtained in combination studies concluded that in-vitro data is consistent with in-silico data and that MMV675968 is a potential lead for future process of antimicrobial drug development against the multidrug resistance E. coli.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shingini Sharma
- Centre for Drug Design Discovery and Development (C4D), SRM University, Sonepat, Haryana, India.,CCS National Institute of Animal Health, Baghpat, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Rashmi Tyagi
- Centre for Drug Design Discovery and Development (C4D), SRM University, Sonepat, Haryana, India
| | - Mitul Srivastava
- Translational Health Science and Technology Institute (THSTI), Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Kusum Rani
- Centre for Drug Design Discovery and Development (C4D), SRM University, Sonepat, Haryana, India
| | - Dhruv Kumar
- Amity Institute of Molecular Medicine and Stem Cell Research, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India
| | - Shailendra Asthana
- Translational Health Science and Technology Institute (THSTI), Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - V Samuel Raj
- Centre for Drug Design Discovery and Development (C4D), SRM University, Sonepat, Haryana, India
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Ullah I, Sharma R, Mete A, Biagini GA, Wetzel DM, Horrocks PD. The relative rate of kill of the MMV Malaria Box compounds provides links to the mode of antimalarial action and highlights scaffolds of medicinal chemistry interest. J Antimicrob Chemother 2021; 75:362-370. [PMID: 31665424 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkz443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Rapid rate-of-kill (RoK) is a key parameter in the target candidate profile 1 (TCP1) for the next-generation antimalarial drugs for uncomplicated malaria, termed Single Encounter Radical Cure and Prophylaxis (SERCaP). TCP1 aims to rapidly eliminate the initial parasite burden, ideally as fast as artesunate, but minimally as fast as chloroquine. Here we explore whether the relative RoK of the Medicine for Malaria Venture (MMV) Malaria Box compounds is linked to their mode of action (MoA) and identify scaffolds of medicinal chemistry interest. METHODS We used a bioluminescence relative RoK (BRRoK) assay over 6 and 48 h, with exposure to equipotent IC50 concentrations, to compare the cytocidal effects of Malaria Box compounds with those of benchmark antimalarials. RESULTS BRRoK assay data demonstrate the following relative RoKs, from fast to slow: inhibitors of PfATP4>parasite haemoglobin catabolism>dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase (DHFR-TS)>dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH)>bc1 complex. Core-scaffold clustering analyses revealed intrinsic rapid cytocidal action for diamino-glycerols and 2-(aminomethyl)phenol, but slow action for 2-phenylbenz-imidazoles, 8-hydroxyquinolines and triazolopyrimidines. CONCLUSIONS This study provides proof of principle that a compound's RoK is related to its MoA and that the target's intrinsic RoK is also modified by factors affecting a drug's access to it. Our findings highlight that as we use medicinal chemistry to improve potency, we can also improve the RoK for some scaffolds. Our BRRoK assay provides the necessary throughput for drug discovery and a critical decision-making tool to support development campaigns. Finally, two scaffolds, diamino-glycerols and 2-phenylbenzimidazoles, exhibit fast cytocidal action, inviting medicinal chemistry improvements towards TCP1 candidates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Imran Ullah
- Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK
| | - Raman Sharma
- Research Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, UK
| | - Antonio Mete
- Medsyndesign Ltd, Advanced Technology Innovation Centre, 5 Oakwood Drive, Loughborough, UK
| | - Giancarlo A Biagini
- Research Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, UK
| | - Dawn M Wetzel
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75235, USA
| | - Paul D Horrocks
- Institute for Science and Technology in Medicine, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Driving antimalarial design through understanding of target mechanism. Biochem Soc Trans 2020; 48:2067-2078. [PMID: 32869828 PMCID: PMC7609028 DOI: 10.1042/bst20200224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Malaria continues to be a global health threat, affecting approximately 219 million people in 2018 alone. The recurrent development of resistance to existing antimalarials means that the design of new drug candidates must be carefully considered. Understanding of drug target mechanism can dramatically accelerate early-stage target-based development of novel antimalarials and allows for structural modifications even during late-stage preclinical development. Here, we have provided an overview of three promising antimalarial molecular targets, PfDHFR, PfDHODH and PfA-M1, and their associated inhibitors which demonstrate how mechanism can inform drug design and be effectively utilised to generate compounds with potent inhibitory activity.
Collapse
|
11
|
Rout S, Mahapatra RK. In silico study of M18 aspartyl amino peptidase (M18AAP) of Plasmodium vivax as an antimalarial drug target. Bioorg Med Chem 2019; 27:2553-2571. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2019.03.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 03/16/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
|
12
|
Mishra M, Singh V, Singh S. Structural Insights Into Key Plasmodium Proteases as Therapeutic Drug Targets. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:394. [PMID: 30891019 PMCID: PMC6411711 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria, caused by protozoan of genus Plasmodium, remains one of the highest mortality infectious diseases. Malaria parasites have a complex life cycle, easily adapt to their host’s immune system and have evolved with an arsenal of unique proteases which play crucial roles in proliferation and survival within the host cells. Owing to the existing knowledge of enzymatic mechanisms, 3D structures and active sites of proteases, they have been proven to be opportune for target based drug development. Here, we discuss in depth the crucial roles of essential proteases in Plasmodium life cycle and particularly focus on highlighting the atypical “structural signatures” of key parasite proteases which have been exploited for drug development. These features, on one hand aid parasites pathogenicity while on the other hand could be effective in designing targeted and very specific inhibitors for counteracting them. We conclude that Plasmodium proteases are suitable as multistage targets for designing novel drugs with new modes of action to combat malaria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manasi Mishra
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Dadri, India
| | - Vigyasa Singh
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Shailja Singh
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Dadri, India.,Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Screening the Pathogen Box for Identification of New Chemical Agents with Anti- Fasciola hepatica Activity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2019; 63:AAC.02373-18. [PMID: 30602522 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02373-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Fascioliasis is an infectious parasitic disease distributed globally and caused by the liver fluke Fasciola hepatica or F. gigantica This neglected tropical disease affects both animals and humans, and it represents a latent public health problem due to the significant economic losses related to its effects on animal husbandry. For decades, triclabendazole has been the unique anti-Fasciola drug that can effectively treat this disease. However, triclabendazole resistance in fascioliasis has more recently been reported around the world, and thus, the discovery of novel drugs is an urgent need. The aim of this study was to investigate the fasciocidal properties of 400 compounds contained in the Pathogen Box. The first stage of the screening was carried out by measuring the fasciocidal activity on metacercariae at a concentration of 33 μM each compound (the standard dose). Subsequently, the activities of the most active compounds (n = 33) at their 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values against metacercariae were assayed, and the results showed that 13 compounds had IC50s of ≤10 μM. The second stage queried the activities of these compounds at 33 μM against adult flukes, with seven of the compounds producing high mortality rates of >50%. Four hit compounds were selected on the basis of their predicted nontoxic properties, and the IC50 values obtained for adult worms were <10 μM; thus, these compounds represented the best fasciocidal compounds tested here. A cytotoxicity assay on four types of cell lines demonstrated that three compounds were nontoxic at their most active concentration. In conclusion, three hit compounds identified in this proof-of-concept study are potential candidates in the discovery of new fasciocidal drugs. Further studies are warranted.
Collapse
|
14
|
Rout S, Mahapatra RK. Plasmodium falciparum: Multidrug resistance. Chem Biol Drug Des 2019; 93:737-759. [DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.13484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Revised: 01/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Subhashree Rout
- School of BiotechnologyKIIT University Bhubaneswar Odisha India
| | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Wang F, Hu X, Zhou B. Structural characterization of plasmodial aminopeptidase: a combined molecular docking and QSAR-based in silico approaches. Mol Divers 2019; 23:965-984. [DOI: 10.1007/s11030-019-09921-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
16
|
Vinh NB, Drinkwater N, Malcolm TR, Kassiou M, Lucantoni L, Grin PM, Butler GS, Duffy S, Overall CM, Avery VM, Scammells PJ, McGowan S. Hydroxamic Acid Inhibitors Provide Cross-Species Inhibition of Plasmodium M1 and M17 Aminopeptidases. J Med Chem 2018; 62:622-640. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b01310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Natalie B. Vinh
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Nyssa Drinkwater
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Tess R. Malcolm
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Michael Kassiou
- School of Chemistry, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Leonardo Lucantoni
- Discovery Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
| | | | | | - Sandra Duffy
- Discovery Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
| | | | - Vicky M. Avery
- Discovery Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
| | - Peter J. Scammells
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Department of Microbiology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Escotte-Binet S, Huguenin A, Aubert D, Martin AP, Kaltenbach M, Florent I, Villena I. Metallopeptidases of Toxoplasma gondii: in silico identification and gene expression. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 25:26. [PMID: 29737275 PMCID: PMC5939537 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2018025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Metallopeptidases are a family of proteins with domains that remain highly conserved throughout evolution. These hydrolases require divalent metal cation(s) to activate the water molecule in order to carry out their catalytic action on peptide bonds by nucleophilic attack. Metallopeptidases from parasitic protozoa, including Toxoplasma, are investigated because of their crucial role in parasite biology. In the present study, we screened the T. gondii database using PFAM motifs specific for metallopeptidases in association with the MEROPS peptidase Database (release 10.0). In all, 49 genes encoding proteins with metallopeptidase signatures were identified in the Toxoplasma genome. An Interpro Search enabled us to uncover their domain/motif organization, and orthologs with the highest similarity by BLAST were used for annotation. These 49 Toxoplasma metallopeptidases clustered into 15 families described in the MEROPS database. Experimental expression analysis of their genes in the tachyzoite stage revealed transcription for all genes studied. Further research on the role of these peptidases should increase our knowledge of basic Toxoplasma biology and provide opportunities to identify novel therapeutic targets. This type of study would also open a path towards the comparative biology of apicomplexans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandie Escotte-Binet
- EA 7510, ESCAPE, Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51100 Reims, France - Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, Toxoplasmosis National Reference Center, Toxoplasma Biological Resource Center, Maison Blanche Hospital, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Antoine Huguenin
- EA 7510, ESCAPE, Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51100 Reims, France - Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, Toxoplasmosis National Reference Center, Toxoplasma Biological Resource Center, Maison Blanche Hospital, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Dominique Aubert
- EA 7510, ESCAPE, Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51100 Reims, France - Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, Toxoplasmosis National Reference Center, Toxoplasma Biological Resource Center, Maison Blanche Hospital, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Anne-Pascaline Martin
- EA 7510, ESCAPE, Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Matthieu Kaltenbach
- EA 7510, ESCAPE, Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51100 Reims, France
| | - Isabelle Florent
- UMR7245 CNRS-MNHN, National Museum of Natural History, Department Adaptations of the Living, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Isabelle Villena
- EA 7510, ESCAPE, Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51100 Reims, France - Laboratory of Parasitology-Mycology, Toxoplasmosis National Reference Center, Toxoplasma Biological Resource Center, Maison Blanche Hospital, 51100 Reims, France
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Vu H, Pedro L, Mak T, McCormick B, Rowley J, Liu M, Di Capua A, Williams-Noonan B, Pham NB, Pouwer R, Nguyen B, Andrews KT, Skinner-Adams T, Kim J, Hol WGJ, Hui R, Crowther GJ, Van Voorhis WC, Quinn RJ. Fragment-Based Screening of a Natural Product Library against 62 Potential Malaria Drug Targets Employing Native Mass Spectrometry. ACS Infect Dis 2018; 4:431-444. [PMID: 29436819 PMCID: PMC5902791 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.7b00197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
![]()
Natural
products are well known for their biological relevance, high degree
of three-dimensionality, and access to areas of largely unexplored
chemical space. To shape our understanding of the interaction between
natural products and protein targets in the postgenomic era, we have
used native mass spectrometry to investigate 62 potential protein
targets for malaria using a natural-product-based fragment library.
We reveal here 96 low-molecular-weight natural products identified
as binding partners of 32 of the putative malarial targets. Seventy-nine
(79) fragments have direct growth inhibition on Plasmodium
falciparum at concentrations that are promising for the development
of fragment hits against these protein targets. This adds a fragment
library to the published HTS active libraries in the public domain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hoan Vu
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Liliana Pedro
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Tin Mak
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Brendan McCormick
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Jessica Rowley
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Miaomiao Liu
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Angela Di Capua
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Billy Williams-Noonan
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Ngoc B. Pham
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Rebecca Pouwer
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Bao Nguyen
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Katherine T. Andrews
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Tina Skinner-Adams
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | | | | | - Raymond Hui
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Toronto, MaRS South Tower, seventh floor 101 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
| | | | | | - Ronald J. Quinn
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Pascual I, Valiente PA, García G, Valdés-Tresanco ME, Arrebola Y, Díaz L, Bounaadja L, Uribe RM, Pacheco MC, Florent I, Charli JL. Discovery of novel non-competitive inhibitors of mammalian neutral M1 aminopeptidase (APN). Biochimie 2017; 142:216-225. [PMID: 28964831 PMCID: PMC7127808 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2017.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Neutral metallo-aminopeptidase (APN) catalyzes the cleavage of neutral and basic amino acids from the N-terminus of protein or peptide substrates. APN expression is dysregulated in inflammatory diseases as well as in several types of cancer. Therefore, inhibitors of APN may be effective against cancer and inflammation. By virtual screening and enzymatic assays, we identified three non-competitive inhibitors (α > 1) of the porcine and human APN with Ki values in the μM range. These non-peptidic compounds lack the classical zinc-binding groups (ZBG) present in most of the APN inhibitors. Molecular docking simulations suggested the novel inhibitors suppress APN activity by an alternative mechanism to Zn coordination: they interacted with residues comprising the S1 and S5′ subsites of APN. Of note, these compounds also inhibited the porcine aminopeptidase A (pAPA) using a competitive inhibition mode. This indicated differences in the binding mode of these compounds with APN and APA. Based on sequence and structural analyses, we predicted the significance of targeting human APN residues: Ala-351, Arg-442, Ala-474, Phe-896 and Asn-900 for improving the selectivity of the identified compounds. Remarkably, the intraperitoneal injection of compounds BTB07018 and JFD00064 inhibited APN activity in rat brain, liver and kidney indicating good bio-distribution of these inhibitors in vivo. These data reinforce the idea of designing novel APN inhibitors based on lead compounds without ZBG. We identified three non-competitive inhibitors of the human and porcine APN. These compounds lack the classical zinc-binding groups of the APN inhibitors. We proposed these molecules block APN by an alternative mechanism to Zn chelation. All the inhibitors interact with APN residues comprising the S1 and S5′ subsites. Two compounds blocked the APN activity in the brain, liver and kidney of rats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isel Pascual
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Cuba.
| | - Pedro A Valiente
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Cuba.
| | - Gabriela García
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Cuba.
| | | | - Yarini Arrebola
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Cuba.
| | - Lisset Díaz
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Cuba.
| | - Lotfi Bounaadja
- Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Microorganismes, (MCAM, UMR 7245), Muséum National Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, CNRS, CP 52, 57 Rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France.
| | - Rosa María Uribe
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ave Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
| | | | - Isabelle Florent
- Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Microorganismes, (MCAM, UMR 7245), Muséum National Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, CNRS, CP 52, 57 Rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France.
| | - Jean-Louis Charli
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ave Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Screening the Medicines for Malaria Venture Pathogen Box across Multiple Pathogens Reclassifies Starting Points for Open-Source Drug Discovery. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2017; 61:AAC.00379-17. [PMID: 28674055 PMCID: PMC5571359 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00379-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Open-access drug discovery provides a substantial resource for diseases primarily affecting the poor and disadvantaged. The open-access Pathogen Box collection is comprised of compounds with demonstrated biological activity against specific pathogenic organisms. The supply of this resource by the Medicines for Malaria Venture has the potential to provide new chemical starting points for a number of tropical and neglected diseases, through repurposing of these compounds for use in drug discovery campaigns for these additional pathogens. We tested the Pathogen Box against kinetoplastid parasites and malaria life cycle stages in vitro Consequently, chemical starting points for malaria, human African trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease, and leishmaniasis drug discovery efforts have been identified. Inclusive of this in vitro biological evaluation, outcomes from extensive literature reviews and database searches are provided. This information encompasses commercial availability, literature reference citations, other aliases and ChEMBL number with associated biological activity, where available. The release of this new data for the Pathogen Box collection into the public domain will aid the open-source model of drug discovery. Importantly, this will provide novel chemical starting points for drug discovery and target identification in tropical disease research.
Collapse
|
21
|
González-Bacerio J, Maluf SEC, Méndez Y, Pascual I, Florent I, Melo PMS, Budu A, Ferreira JC, Moreno E, Carmona AK, Rivera DG, Alonso Del Rivero M, Gazarini ML. KBE009: An antimalarial bestatin-like inhibitor of the Plasmodium falciparum M1 aminopeptidase discovered in an Ugi multicomponent reaction-derived peptidomimetic library. Bioorg Med Chem 2017; 25:4628-4636. [PMID: 28728898 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2017.06.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is a global human parasitic disease mainly caused by the protozoon Plasmodium falciparum. Increased parasite resistance to current drugs determines the relevance of finding new treatments against new targets. A novel target is the M1 alanyl-aminopeptidase from P. falciparum (PfA-M1), which is essential for parasite development in human erythrocytes and is inhibited by the pseudo-peptide bestatin. In this work, we used a combinatorial multicomponent approach to produce a library of peptidomimetics and screened it for the inhibition of recombinant PfA-M1 (rPfA-M1) and the in vitro growth of P. falciparum erythrocytic stages (3D7 and FcB1 strains). Dose-response studies with selected compounds allowed identifying the bestatin-based peptidomimetic KBE009 as a submicromolar rPfA-M1 inhibitor (Ki=0.4μM) and an in vitro antimalarial compound as potent as bestatin (IC50=18μM; without promoting erythrocyte lysis). At therapeutic-relevant concentrations, KBE009 is selective for rPfA-M1 over porcine APN (a model of these enzymes from mammals), and is not cytotoxic against HUVEC cells. Docking simulations indicate that this compound binds PfA-M1 without Zn2+ coordination, establishing mainly hydrophobic interactions and showing a remarkable shape complementarity with the active site of the enzyme. Moreover, KBE009 inhibits the M1-type aminopeptidase activity (Ala-7-amido-4-methylcoumarin substrate) in isolated live parasites with a potency similar to that of the antimalarial activity (IC50=82μM), strongly suggesting that the antimalarial effect is directly related to the inhibition of the endogenous PfA-M1. These results support the value of this multicomponent strategy to identify PfA-M1 inhibitors, and make KBE009 a promising hit for drug development against malaria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jorge González-Bacerio
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana, Calle 25 #455 entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba.
| | - Sarah El Chamy Maluf
- Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Pedro de Toledo, 669, 7 andar, 04039-032, Vila Mariana, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Yanira Méndez
- Centro de Estudio de Productos Naturales, Facultad de Química, Universidad de La Habana, Zapata y G, 10400 La Habana, Cuba.
| | - Isel Pascual
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana, Calle 25 #455 entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba.
| | - Isabelle Florent
- Unité Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Microorganismes, (MCAM, UMR 7245), Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National Histoire Naturelle, CNRS, CP 52, 57 Rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France.
| | - Pollyana M S Melo
- Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Pedro de Toledo, 669, 7 andar, 04039-032, Vila Mariana, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Alexandre Budu
- Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Pedro de Toledo, 669, 7 andar, 04039-032, Vila Mariana, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Juliana C Ferreira
- Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Pedro de Toledo, 669, 7 andar, 04039-032, Vila Mariana, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Ernesto Moreno
- Centro de Inmunología Molecular, Calle 15 esq. 216, Siboney, Playa, La Habana, Cuba; Universidad de Medellín, Carrera 87 #30-65, Medellín, Colombia.
| | - Adriana K Carmona
- Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Pedro de Toledo, 669, 7 andar, 04039-032, Vila Mariana, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Daniel G Rivera
- Centro de Estudio de Productos Naturales, Facultad de Química, Universidad de La Habana, Zapata y G, 10400 La Habana, Cuba.
| | - Maday Alonso Del Rivero
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana, Calle 25 #455 entre I y J, 10400, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba.
| | - Marcos L Gazarini
- Departamento de Biociências, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Silva Jardim, 136, 11015-020, Vila Mathias, Santos, São Paulo, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Fletcher S, Lucantoni L, Sykes ML, Jones AJ, Holleran JP, Saliba KJ, Avery VM. Biological characterization of chemically diverse compounds targeting the Plasmodium falciparum coenzyme A synthesis pathway. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:589. [PMID: 27855724 PMCID: PMC5114727 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1860-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In the fight against malaria, the discovery of chemical compounds with a novel mode of action and/or chemistry distinct from currently used drugs is vital to counteract the parasite’s known ability to develop drug resistance. Another desirable aspect is efficacy against gametocytes, the sexual developmental stage of the parasite which enables the transmission through Anopheles vectors. Using a chemical rescue approach, we previously identified compounds targeting Plasmodium falciparum coenzyme A (CoA) synthesis or utilization, a promising target that has not yet been exploited in anti-malarial drug development. Results We report on the outcomes of a series of biological tests that help to define the species- and stage-specificity, as well as the potential targets of these chemically diverse compounds. Compound activity against P. falciparum gametocytes was determined to assess stage-specificity and transmission-reducing potential. Against early stage gametocytes IC50 values ranging between 60 nM and 7.5 μM were obtained. With the exception of two compounds with sub-micromolar potencies across all intra-erythrocytic stages, activity against late stage gametocytes was lower. None of the compounds were specific pantothenate kinase inhibitors. Chemical rescue profiling with CoA pathway intermediates demonstrated that most compounds acted on either of the two final P. falciparum CoA synthesis enzymes, phosphopantetheine adenylyltransferase (PPAT) or dephospho CoA kinase (DPCK). The most active compound targeted either phosphopantothenoylcysteine synthetase (PPCS) or phosphopantothenoylcysteine decarboxylase (PPCDC). Species-specificity was evaluated against Trypanosoma cruzi and Trypanosoma brucei brucei. No specific activity against T. cruzi amastigotes was observed; however three compounds inhibited the viability of trypomastigotes with sub-micromolar potencies and were confirmed to act on T. b. brucei CoA synthesis. Conclusions Utilizing the compounds we previously identified as effective against asexual P. falciparum, we demonstrate for the first time that gametocytes, like the asexual stages, depend on CoA, with two compounds exhibiting sub-micromolar potencies across asexual forms and all gametocytes stages tested. Furthermore, three compounds inhibited the viability of T. cruzi and T. b. brucei trypomastigotes with sub-micromolar potencies and were confirmed to act on T. b. brucei CoA synthesis, indicating that the CoA synthesis pathway might represent a valuable new drug target in these parasite species. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1860-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Fletcher
- Discovery Biology, Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Leonardo Lucantoni
- Discovery Biology, Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Melissa L Sykes
- Discovery Biology, Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Amy J Jones
- Discovery Biology, Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - John P Holleran
- Discovery Biology, Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Kevin J Saliba
- Medical School and Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Vicky M Avery
- Discovery Biology, Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Metabolomics-Based Screening of the Malaria Box Reveals both Novel and Established Mechanisms of Action. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2016; 60:6650-6663. [PMID: 27572396 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01226-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
High-throughput phenotypic screening of chemical libraries has resulted in the identification of thousands of compounds with potent antimalarial activity, although in most cases, the mechanism(s) of action of these compounds remains unknown. Here we have investigated the mode of action of 90 antimalarial compounds derived from the Malaria Box collection using high-coverage, untargeted metabolomics analysis. Approximately half of the tested compounds induced significant metabolic perturbations in in vitro cultures of Plasmodium falciparum In most cases, the metabolic profiles were highly correlated with known antimalarials, in particular artemisinin, the 4-aminoquinolines, or atovaquone. Select Malaria Box compounds also induced changes in intermediates in essential metabolic pathways, such as isoprenoid biosynthesis (i.e., 2-C-methyl-d-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate) and linolenic acid metabolism (i.e., traumatic acid). This study provides a comprehensive database of the metabolic perturbations induced by chemically diverse inhibitors and highlights the utility of metabolomics for triaging new lead compounds and defining specific modes of action, which will assist with the development and optimization of new antimalarial drugs.
Collapse
|
24
|
Metabolomic Profiling of the Malaria Box Reveals Antimalarial Target Pathways. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2016; 60:6635-6649. [PMID: 27572391 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01224-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The threat of widespread drug resistance to frontline antimalarials has renewed the urgency for identifying inexpensive chemotherapeutic compounds that are effective against Plasmodium falciparum, the parasite species responsible for the greatest number of malaria-related deaths worldwide. To aid in the fight against malaria, a recent extensive screening campaign has generated thousands of lead compounds with low micromolar activity against blood stage parasites. A subset of these leads has been compiled by the Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV) into a collection of structurally diverse compounds known as the MMV Malaria Box. Currently, little is known regarding the activity of these Malaria Box compounds on parasite metabolism during intraerythrocytic development, and a majority of the targets for these drugs have yet to be defined. Here we interrogated the in vitro metabolic effects of 189 drugs (including 169 of the drug-like compounds from the Malaria Box) using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS). The resulting metabolic fingerprints provide information on the parasite biochemical pathways affected by pharmacologic intervention and offer a critical blueprint for selecting and advancing lead compounds as next-generation antimalarial drugs. Our results reveal several major classes of metabolic disruption, which allow us to predict the mode of action (MoA) for many of the Malaria Box compounds. We anticipate that future combination therapies will be greatly informed by these results, allowing for the selection of appropriate drug combinations that simultaneously target multiple metabolic pathways, with the aim of eliminating malaria and forestalling the expansion of drug-resistant parasites in the field.
Collapse
|
25
|
Characterization of aspartyl aminopeptidase from Toxoplasma gondii. Sci Rep 2016; 6:34448. [PMID: 27678060 PMCID: PMC5039622 DOI: 10.1038/srep34448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Aminopeptidases have emerged as new promising drug targets for the development of novel anti-parasitic drugs. An aspartyl aminopeptidase-like gene has been identified in the Toxoplasma gondii genome (TgAAP), although its function remains unknown. In this study, we characterized TgAAP and performed functional analysis of the gene product. Firstly, we expressed a functional recombinant TgAAP (rTgAAP) protein in Escherichia coli, and found that it required metal ions for activity and showed a substrate preference for N-terminal acidic amino acids Glu and Asp. Then, we evaluated the function and drug target potential of TgAAP using the CRISPR/Cas9 knockout system. Western blotting demonstrated the deletion of TgAAP in the knockout strain. Indirect immunofluorescence analysis showed that TgAAP was localized in the cytoplasm of the wild-type parasite, but was not expressed in the knockout strain. Phenotype analysis revealed that TgAAP knockout inhibited the attachment/invasion, replication, and substrate-specific activity in T. gondii. Finally, the activity of drug CID 23724194, previously described as targeting Plasmodium and malarial parasite AAP, was tested against rTgAAP and the parasite. Overall, TgAAP knockout affected the growth of T. gondii but did not completely abolish parasite replication and growth. Therefore, TgAAP may comprise a useful adjunct drug target of T. gondii.
Collapse
|
26
|
Open Source Drug Discovery with the Malaria Box Compound Collection for Neglected Diseases and Beyond. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005763. [PMID: 27467575 PMCID: PMC4965013 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 205] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
A major cause of the paucity of new starting points for drug discovery is the lack of interaction between academia and industry. Much of the global resource in biology is present in universities, whereas the focus of medicinal chemistry is still largely within industry. Open source drug discovery, with sharing of information, is clearly a first step towards overcoming this gap. But the interface could especially be bridged through a scale-up of open sharing of physical compounds, which would accelerate the finding of new starting points for drug discovery. The Medicines for Malaria Venture Malaria Box is a collection of over 400 compounds representing families of structures identified in phenotypic screens of pharmaceutical and academic libraries against the Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasite. The set has now been distributed to almost 200 research groups globally in the last two years, with the only stipulation that information from the screens is deposited in the public domain. This paper reports for the first time on 236 screens that have been carried out against the Malaria Box and compares these results with 55 assays that were previously published, in a format that allows a meta-analysis of the combined dataset. The combined biochemical and cellular assays presented here suggest mechanisms of action for 135 (34%) of the compounds active in killing multiple life-cycle stages of the malaria parasite, including asexual blood, liver, gametocyte, gametes and insect ookinete stages. In addition, many compounds demonstrated activity against other pathogens, showing hits in assays with 16 protozoa, 7 helminths, 9 bacterial and mycobacterial species, the dengue fever mosquito vector, and the NCI60 human cancer cell line panel of 60 human tumor cell lines. Toxicological, pharmacokinetic and metabolic properties were collected on all the compounds, assisting in the selection of the most promising candidates for murine proof-of-concept experiments and medicinal chemistry programs. The data for all of these assays are presented and analyzed to show how outstanding leads for many indications can be selected. These results reveal the immense potential for translating the dispersed expertise in biological assays involving human pathogens into drug discovery starting points, by providing open access to new families of molecules, and emphasize how a small additional investment made to help acquire and distribute compounds, and sharing the data, can catalyze drug discovery for dozens of different indications. Another lesson is that when multiple screens from different groups are run on the same library, results can be integrated quickly to select the most valuable starting points for subsequent medicinal chemistry efforts. Malaria leads to the loss of over 440,000 lives annually; accelerating research to discover new candidate drugs is a priority. Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV) has distilled over 25,000 compounds that kill malaria parasites in vitro into a group of 400 representative compounds, called the "Malaria Box". These Malaria Box sets were distributed free-of-charge to research laboratories in 30 different countries that work on a wide variety of pathogens. Fifty-five groups compiled >290 assay results for this paper describing the many activities of the Malaria Box compounds. The collective results suggest a potential mechanism of action for over 130 compounds against malaria and illuminate the most promising compounds for further malaria drug development research. Excitingly some of these compounds also showed outstanding activity against other disease agents including fungi, bacteria, other single-cellular parasites, worms, and even human cancer cells. The results have ignited over 30 drug development programs for a variety of diseases. This open access effort was so successful that MMV has begun to distribute another set of compounds with initial activity against a wider range of infectious agents that are of public health concern, called the Pathogen Box, available now to scientific labs all over the world (www.PathogenBox.org).
Collapse
|
27
|
In Vitro Screening of the Open-Source Medicines for Malaria Venture Malaria Box Reveals Novel Compounds with Profound Activities against Theileria annulata Schizonts. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2016; 60:3301-8. [PMID: 26976863 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02801-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracellular schizonts of the apicomplexans Theileria annulata and Theileria parva immortalize bovine leukocytes and thereby cause fatal diseases. The hydroxynaphthoquinone buparvaquone is currently the only option for the treatment of theileriosis, and resistance development has been reported. It is therefore tempting to investigate the repurposing of compounds effective against related apicomplexan parasites, such as Plasmodium Here, we present the results of a screen of 400 compounds included in the open-access Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV) malaria box on TaC12 cells, a macrophage-derived cell line immortalized by T. annulata schizonts. Using a combination of the classical alamarBlue vitality assay and a recently developed quantitative reverse transcriptase real-time PCR method based on the Theileria TaSP gene, we have identified 5 compounds, characterized their effects on the ultrastructure of TaC12 cells, and investigated whether they easily induce resistance formation. Two compounds, the quinolinols MMV666022 and MMV666054, have 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50s) of 0.5 and 0.2 μM on TaC12 cells and 5.3 and 5.2 μM on BoMac cells, respectively. Thus, with therapeutic indexes of 11 and 18, they represent promising leads for further development of antitheilerial chemotherapeutics.
Collapse
|
28
|
Stadelmann B, Rufener R, Aeschbacher D, Spiliotis M, Gottstein B, Hemphill A. Screening of the Open Source Malaria Box Reveals an Early Lead Compound for the Treatment of Alveolar Echinococcosis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0004535. [PMID: 26967740 PMCID: PMC4788259 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The metacestode (larval) stage of the tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis causes alveolar echinococcosis (AE), a very severe and in many cases incurable disease. To date, benzimidazoles such as albendazole and mebendazole are the only approved chemotherapeutical treatment options. Benzimidazoles inhibit metacestode proliferation, but do not act parasiticidal. Thus, benzimidazoles have to be taken a lifelong, can cause adverse side effects such as hepatotoxicity, and are ineffective in some patients. We here describe a newly developed screening cascade for the evaluation of the in vitro efficacy of new compounds that includes assessment of parasiticidal activity. The Malaria Box from Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV), comprised of 400 commercially available chemicals that show in vitro activity against Plasmodium falciparum, was repurposed. Primary screening was carried out at 10 μM by employing the previously described PGI assay, and resulted in the identification of 24 compounds that caused physical damage in metacestodes. Seven out of these 24 drugs were also active at 1 μM. Dose-response assays revealed that only 2 compounds, namely MMV665807 and MMV665794, exhibited an EC50 value below 5 μM. Assessments using human foreskin fibroblasts and Reuber rat hepatoma cells showed that the salicylanilide MMV665807 was less toxic for these two mammalian cell lines than for metacestodes. The parasiticidal activity of MMV665807 was then confirmed using isolated germinal layer cell cultures as well as metacestode vesicles by employing viability assays, and its effect on metacestodes was morphologically evaluated by electron microscopy. However, both oral and intraperitoneal application of MMV665807 to mice experimentally infected with E. multilocularis metacestodes did not result in any reduction of the parasite load. The fox tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis causes a deadly disease in humans that is characterized by cancer-like parasite growth in the liver of patients. Hence E. multilocularis is ideally removed by radical resection. However, as this is not always possible, patients are treated by chemotherapy to stop further parasite growth. To date, the drugs in use cannot kill the parasite E. multilocularis and they also induce side-effects, therefore new options for treatment are needed. We here screened a library of 400 compounds with proven activity against Plasmodium falciparum, the cause of malaria, for their effects against E. multilocularis in vitro. We developed and refined an in vitro screening cascade and developed an assay that can identify compounds with parasiticidal effects against E. multilocularis cells. We here show that MMV665807 acts parasiticidal as demonstrated by in vitro viability tests and by electron microscopy. In the mouse infection model the drug was not active, but work will focus on the evaluation of derivatives with improved bioavailability and pharmacokinetic properties to achieve parasiticidal activity not only in vitro, but also in vivo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Britta Stadelmann
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| | - Reto Rufener
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland
| | - Denise Aeschbacher
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland
| | - Markus Spiliotis
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland
| | - Bruno Gottstein
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland
| | - Andrew Hemphill
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Aneja B, Kumar B, Jairajpuri MA, Abid M. A structure guided drug-discovery approach towards identification of Plasmodium inhibitors. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra19673f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This article provides a comprehensive review of inhibitors from natural, semisynthetic or synthetic sources against key targets ofPlasmodium falciparum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Babita Aneja
- Medicinal Chemistry Lab
- Department of Biosciences
- Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University)
- New Delhi 110025
- India
| | - Bhumika Kumar
- Medicinal Chemistry Lab
- Department of Biosciences
- Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University)
- New Delhi 110025
- India
| | - Mohamad Aman Jairajpuri
- Protein Conformation and Enzymology Lab
- Department of Biosciences
- Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University)
- New Delhi 110025
- India
| | - Mohammad Abid
- Medicinal Chemistry Lab
- Department of Biosciences
- Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University)
- New Delhi 110025
- India
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Abstract
Because of the perpetual development of resistance to current therapies for malaria, the Medicines for Malaria Venture developed the Malaria Box to facilitate the drug development process. We tested the 80 most potent compounds from the box for bilayer-mediated effects on membrane protein conformational changes (a measure of likely toxicity) in a gramicidin-based stopped flow fluorescence assay. Among the Malaria Box compounds tested, four compounds altered membrane properties (p< 0.05); MMV007384 stood out as a potent bilayer-perturbing compound that is toxic in many cell-based assays, suggesting that testing for membrane perturbation could help identify toxic compounds. In any case, MMV007384 should be approached with caution, if at all.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole B. Ramsey
- Weill Cornell/Rockefeller/Sloan-Kettering Tri-Institutional MD-PhD Program, New York, NY, United States of America
- Graduate Program in Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, NY, United States of America
| | - Olaf S. Andersen
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Ruggeri C, Drinkwater N, Sivaraman KK, Bamert RS, McGowan S, Paiardini A. Identification and Validation of a Potent Dual Inhibitor of the P. falciparum M1 and M17 Aminopeptidases Using Virtual Screening. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138957. [PMID: 26406322 PMCID: PMC4583420 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The Plasmodium falciparum PfA-M1 and PfA-M17 metalloaminopeptidases are validated drug targets for the discovery of antimalarial agents. In order to identify dual inhibitors of both proteins, we developed a hierarchical virtual screening approach, followed by in vitro evaluation of the highest scoring hits. Starting from the ZINC database of purchasable compounds, sequential 3D-pharmacophore and molecular docking steps were applied to filter the virtual 'hits'. At the end of virtual screening, 12 compounds were chosen and tested against the in vitro aminopeptidase activity of both PfA-M1 and PfA-M17. Two molecules showed significant inhibitory activity (low micromolar/nanomolar range) against both proteins. Finally, the crystal structure of the most potent compound in complex with both PfA-M1 and PfA-M17 was solved, revealing the binding mode and validating our computational approach.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Ruggeri
- Dipartimento di Scienze biochimiche "A. Rossi Fanelli", Sapienza Università di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Roma, Italy
| | - Nyssa Drinkwater
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, 3800, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Komagal Kannan Sivaraman
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, 3800, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Rebecca S. Bamert
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, 3800, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, 3800, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton Campus, Melbourne, Victoria, 3800, Australia
- * E-mail: (SM); (AP)
| | - Alessandro Paiardini
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie "Charles Darwin", Sapienza Università di Roma, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Roma, Italy
- * E-mail: (SM); (AP)
| |
Collapse
|