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Wagner TM, Romero-Saavedra F, Laverde D, Johannessen M, Hübner J, Hegstad K. Enterococcal Membrane Vesicles as Vaccine Candidates. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16051. [PMID: 38003243 PMCID: PMC10671723 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242216051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Enterococcus faecium is a leading cause of nosocomial infections, particularly in immunocompromised patients. The rise of multidrug-resistant E. faecium, including Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci (VRE), is a major concern. Vaccines are promising alternatives to antibiotics, but there is currently no vaccine available against enterococci. In a previous study, we identified six protein vaccine candidates associated with extracellular membrane vesicles (MVs) produced by nosocomial E. faecium. In this study, we immunized rabbits with two different VRE-derived MV preparations and characterized the resulting immune sera. Both anti-MV sera exhibited high immunoreactivity towards the homologous strain, three additional VRE strains, and eight different unrelated E. faecium strains representing different sequence types (STs). Additionally, we demonstrated that the two anti-MV sera were able to mediate opsonophagocytic killing of not only the homologous strain but also three unrelated heterologous VRE strains. Altogether, our results indicate that E. faecium MVs, regardless of the purification method for obtaining them, are promising vaccine candidates against multidrug-resistant E. faecium and suggest that these naturally occurring MVs can be used as a multi-antigen platform to elicit protective immune responses against enterococcal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Maria Wagner
- Research Group for Host-Microbe Interactions, Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway; (T.M.W.); (M.J.)
| | - Felipe Romero-Saavedra
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, 80337 Munich, Germany; (F.R.-S.); (D.L.); (J.H.)
| | - Diana Laverde
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, 80337 Munich, Germany; (F.R.-S.); (D.L.); (J.H.)
| | - Mona Johannessen
- Research Group for Host-Microbe Interactions, Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway; (T.M.W.); (M.J.)
| | - Johannes Hübner
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, 80337 Munich, Germany; (F.R.-S.); (D.L.); (J.H.)
| | - Kristin Hegstad
- Research Group for Host-Microbe Interactions, Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway; (T.M.W.); (M.J.)
- Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Detection of Antimicrobial Resistance, Department of Microbiology and Infection Control, University Hospital of North Norway, N-9038 Tromsø, Norway
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Wang J, Xuan J, Liu Y, Li Z, Han Y, Wang Z. NIR-dependent photothermal-photodynamic synergistic antibacterial mechanism for titanium carbide nanosheets intercalated and delaminated by tetramethylammonium hydroxide. BIOMATERIALS ADVANCES 2023; 152:213492. [PMID: 37343331 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioadv.2023.213492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
The infectious disease epidemics caused by pathogens are a serious and growing worldwide public health problem. More seriously, the multiple resistant bacteria extensively spread in hospitals or communities due to antibiotic abuse. In this paper, we fabricate two-dimensional Ti3C2 nanosheets with excellent biocompatibility and photothermal-photodynamic synergistic antibacterial activity against E. coli and S. aureus based on the strategy of tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAOH)-driven intercalation and delamination. Compared with the traditional Ti3C2 nanosheets exfoliated by HF or situ HF (HCl + LiF), the photothermal-photodynamic Ti3C2 nanosheets show higher synergistic antibacterial efficiency. In addition, the antibacterial mechanism demonstrates that biofilm disruption and leakage of bacterial contents contribute to reactive oxygen species reaction (ROS) and photothermal antibacterial activity irradiated by NIR after most Ti3C2 nanosheets adhering to target bacteria. In conclusion, the Ti3C2 nanosheets have great potential as an effective antibacterial material without causing drug resistance, relying on intercalating and delaminating by TMAOH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Wang
- Institute of Advanced Materials, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi 435002, China; College of Biological and Food Engineering, Anhui Polytechnic University, Wuhu 241000, China.
| | - Jinnan Xuan
- Institute of Advanced Materials, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi 435002, China.
| | - Yisi Liu
- Institute of Advanced Materials, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi 435002, China
| | - Zhong Li
- Institute of Advanced Materials, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi 435002, China
| | - Yuqiang Han
- Institute of Advanced Materials, Hubei Normal University, Huangshi 435002, China
| | - Zhen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China (Ministry of Education), Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
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3
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Recent chemical syntheses of bacteria related oligosaccharides using modern expeditious approaches. Carbohydr Res 2021; 507:108295. [PMID: 34271477 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2021.108295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Apart from some essential and crucial roles in life processes carbohydrates also are involved in a few detrimental courses of action related to human health, like infections by pathogenic microbes, cancer metastasis, transplanted tissue rejection, etc. Regarding management of pathogenesis by microbes, keeping in mind of multi drug-resistant bacteria and epidemic or endemic incidents, preventive measure by vaccination is the best pathway as also recommended by the WHO; by vaccination, eradication of bacterial diseases is also possible. Although some valid vaccines based on attenuated bacterial cells or isolated pure polysaccharide-antigens or the corresponding conjugates thereof are available in the market for prevention of several bacterial diseases, but these are not devoid of some disadvantages also. In order to develop improved conjugate T-cell dependent vaccines oligosaccharides related to bacterial antigens are synthesized and converted to the corresponding carrier protein conjugates. Marketed Cuban Quimi-Hib is such a vaccine being used since 2004 to resist Haemophilus influenza b infections. During nearly the past two decades research is going on worldwide for improved synthesis of bacteria related oligosaccharides or polysaccharides towards development of such semisynthetic or synthetic glycoconjugate vaccines. The present dissertation is an endeavour to encompass the recent syntheses of several pathogenic bacterial oligosaccharides or polysaccharides, made during the past ten-eleven years with special reference to modern expeditious syntheses.
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Kalfopoulou E, Huebner J. Advances and Prospects in Vaccine Development against Enterococci. Cells 2020; 9:cells9112397. [PMID: 33147722 PMCID: PMC7692742 DOI: 10.3390/cells9112397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Revised: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterococci are the second most common Gram-positive pathogen responsible for nosocomial infections. Due to the limited number of new antibiotics that reach the medical practice and the resistance of enterococci to the current antibiotic options, passive and active immunotherapies have emerged as a potential prevention and/or treatment strategy against this opportunistic pathogen. In this review, we explore the pathogenicity of these bacteria and their interaction with the host immune response. We provide an overview of the capsular polysaccharides and surface-associated proteins that have been described as potential antigens in anti-enterococcal vaccine formulations. In addition, we describe the current status in vaccine development against enterococci and address the importance and the current advances toward the development of well-defined vaccines with broad coverage against enterococci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ermioni Kalfopoulou
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany;
| | - Johannes Huebner
- Division of Paediatric Infectious Diseases, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, 80337 Munich, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-89-44005-7970
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Martín-Galiano AJ, McConnell MJ. Using Omics Technologies and Systems Biology to Identify Epitope Targets for the Development of Monoclonal Antibodies Against Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2841. [PMID: 31921119 PMCID: PMC6914692 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past few decades, antimicrobial resistance has emerged as an important threat to public health due to the global dissemination of multidrug-resistant strains from several bacterial species. This worrisome trend, in addition to the paucity of new antibiotics with novel mechanisms of action in the development pipeline, warrants the development of non-antimicrobial approaches to combating infection caused by these isolates. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have emerged as highly effective molecules for the treatment of multiple diseases. However, in spite of the fact that antibodies play an important role in protective immunity against bacteria, only three mAb therapies have been approved for clinical use in the treatment of bacterial infections. In the present review, we briefly outline the therapeutic potential of mAbs in the treatment of bacterial diseases and discuss how their development can be facilitated when assisted by “omics” technologies and interpreted under a systems biology paradigm. Specifically, methods employing large genomic, transcriptomic, structural, and proteomic datasets allow for the rational identification of epitopes. Ideally, these include those that are present in the majority of circulating isolates, highly conserved at the amino acid level, surface-exposed, located on antigens essential for virulence, and expressed during critical stages of infection. Therefore, these knowledge-based approaches can contribute to the identification of high-value epitopes for the development of effective mAbs against challenging bacterial clones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio J Martín-Galiano
- Intrahospital Infections Laboratory, National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Spain
| | - Michael J McConnell
- Intrahospital Infections Laboratory, National Centre for Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Spain
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Development of Opsonic Mouse Monoclonal Antibodies against Multidrug-Resistant Enterococci. Infect Immun 2019; 87:IAI.00276-19. [PMID: 31285252 PMCID: PMC6704603 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00276-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Multidrug-resistant enterococci are major causes of hospital-acquired infections. Immunotherapy with monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) targeting bacterial antigens would be a valuable treatment option in this setting. Here, we describe the development of two MAbs through hybridoma technology that target antigens from the most clinically relevant enterococcal species. Multidrug-resistant enterococci are major causes of hospital-acquired infections. Immunotherapy with monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) targeting bacterial antigens would be a valuable treatment option in this setting. Here, we describe the development of two MAbs through hybridoma technology that target antigens from the most clinically relevant enterococcal species. Diheteroglycan (DHG), a well-characterized capsular polysaccharide of Enterococcus faecalis, and the secreted antigen A (SagA), an immunogenic protein from Enterococcus faecium, are both immunogens that have been proven to raise opsonic and cross-reactive antibodies against enterococcal strains. For this purpose, a conjugated form of the native DHG with SagA was used to raise the antibodies in mice, while enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and opsonophagocytic assay were combined in the selection process of hybridoma cells producing immunoreactive and opsonic antibodies targeting the selected antigens. From this process, two highly specific IgG1(κ) MAbs were obtained, one against the polysaccharide (DHG.01) and one against the protein (SagA.01). Both MAbs exhibited good opsonic killing against the target bacterial strains: DHG.01 showed 90% killing against E. faecalis type 2, and SagA.01 showed 40% killing against E. faecium 11231/6. In addition, both MAbs showed cross-reactivity toward other E. faecalis and E. faecium strains. The sequences from the variable regions of the heavy and light chains were reconstructed in expression vectors, and the activity of the MAbs upon expression in eukaryotic cells was confirmed with the same immunological assays. In summary, we identified two opsonic MAbs against enterococci which could be used for therapeutic or prophylactic approaches against enterococcal infections.
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Mantravadi PK, Kalesh KA, Dobson RCJ, Hudson AO, Parthasarathy A. The Quest for Novel Antimicrobial Compounds: Emerging Trends in Research, Development, and Technologies. Antibiotics (Basel) 2019; 8:E8. [PMID: 30682820 PMCID: PMC6466574 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics8010008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic antibiotic resistant bacteria pose one of the most important health challenges of the 21st century. The overuse and abuse of antibiotics coupled with the natural evolutionary processes of bacteria has led to this crisis. Only incremental advances in antibiotic development have occurred over the last 30 years. Novel classes of molecules, such as engineered antibodies, antibiotic enhancers, siderophore conjugates, engineered phages, photo-switchable antibiotics, and genome editing facilitated by the CRISPR/Cas system, are providing new avenues to facilitate the development of antimicrobial therapies. The informatics revolution is transforming research and development efforts to discover novel antibiotics. The explosion of nanotechnology and micro-engineering is driving the invention of antimicrobial materials, enabling the cultivation of "uncultivable" microbes and creating specific and rapid diagnostic technologies. Finally, a revival in the ecological aspects of microbial disease management, the growth of prebiotics, and integrated management based on the "One Health" model, provide additional avenues to manage this health crisis. These, and future scientific and technological developments, must be coupled and aligned with sound policy and public awareness to address the risks posed by rising antibiotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Renwick C J Dobson
- Biomolecular Interaction Centre and School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800 Christchurch, New Zealand.
| | - André O Hudson
- Rochester Institute of Technology, Thomas H. Gosnell School of Life Sciences, 85 Lomb Memorial Dr, Rochester, NY 14623, USA.
| | - Anutthaman Parthasarathy
- Rochester Institute of Technology, Thomas H. Gosnell School of Life Sciences, 85 Lomb Memorial Dr, Rochester, NY 14623, USA.
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A Human Biofilm-Disrupting Monoclonal Antibody Potentiates Antibiotic Efficacy in Rodent Models of both Staphylococcus aureus and Acinetobacter baumannii Infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2017; 61:AAC.00904-17. [PMID: 28717038 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00904-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Many serious bacterial infections are antibiotic refractory due to biofilm formation. A key structural component of biofilm is extracellular DNA, which is stabilized by bacterial proteins, including those from the DNABII family. TRL1068 is a high-affinity human monoclonal antibody against a DNABII epitope conserved across both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial species. In the present study, the efficacy of TRL1068 for the disruption of biofilm was demonstrated in vitro in the absence of antibiotics by scanning electron microscopy. The in vivo efficacy of this antibody was investigated in a well-characterized catheter-induced aortic valve infective endocarditis model in rats infected with a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strain with the ability to form thick biofilms, obtained from the blood of a patient with persistent clinical infection. Animals were treated with vancomycin alone or in combination with TRL1068. MRSA burdens in cardiac vegetations and within intracardiac catheters, kidneys, spleen, and liver showed significant reductions in the combination arm versus vancomycin alone (P < 0.001). A trend toward mortality reduction was also observed (P = 0.09). In parallel, the in vivo efficacy of TRL1068 against a multidrug-resistant clinical Acinetobacter baumannii isolate was explored by using an established mouse model of skin and soft tissue catheter-related biofilm infection. Catheter segments infected with A. baumannii were implanted subcutaneously into mice; animals were treated with imipenem alone or in combination with TRL1068. The combination showed a significant reduction of catheter-adherent bacteria versus the antibiotic alone (P < 0.001). TRL1068 shows excellent promise as an adjunct to standard-of-care antibiotics for a broad range of difficult-to-treat bacterial infections.
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Barta ML, Shearer JP, Arizmendi O, Tremblay JM, Mehzabeen N, Zheng Q, Battaile KP, Lovell S, Tzipori S, Picking WD, Shoemaker CB, Picking WL. Single-domain antibodies pinpoint potential targets within Shigella invasion plasmid antigen D of the needle tip complex for inhibition of type III secretion. J Biol Chem 2017; 292:16677-16687. [PMID: 28842484 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m117.802231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous Gram-negative pathogens infect eukaryotes and use the type III secretion system (T3SS) to deliver effector proteins into host cells. One important T3SS feature is an extracellular needle with an associated tip complex responsible for assembly of a pore-forming translocon in the host cell membrane. Shigella spp. cause shigellosis, also called bacillary dysentery, and invade colonic epithelial cells via the T3SS. The tip complex of Shigella flexneri contains invasion plasmid antigen D (IpaD), which initially regulates secretion and provides a physical platform for the translocon pore. The tip complex represents a promising therapeutic target for many important T3SS-containing pathogens. Here, in an effort to further elucidate its function, we created a panel of single-VH domain antibodies (VHHs) that recognize distinct epitopes within IpaD. These VHHs recognized the in situ tip complex and modulated the infectious properties of Shigella Moreover, structural elucidation of several IpaD-VHH complexes provided critical insights into tip complex formation and function. Of note, one VHH heterodimer could reduce Shigella hemolytic activity by >80%. Our observations along with previous findings support the hypothesis that the hydrophobic translocator (IpaB in Shigella) likely binds to a region within the tip protein that is structurally conserved across all T3SS-possessing pathogens, suggesting potential therapeutic avenues for managing infections by these pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael L Barta
- From the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047
| | - Jonathan P Shearer
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Global Health, Tufts Clinical and Translational Science Institute, North Grafton, Massachusetts 02111
| | - Olivia Arizmendi
- From the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047
| | - Jacqueline M Tremblay
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Global Health, Tufts Clinical and Translational Science Institute, North Grafton, Massachusetts 02111
| | - Nurjahan Mehzabeen
- Protein Structure Laboratory, Del Shankel Structural Biology Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, and
| | - Qi Zheng
- From the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047
| | - Kevin P Battaile
- IMCA-CAT, Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute, Argonne, Illinois 60439
| | - Scott Lovell
- Protein Structure Laboratory, Del Shankel Structural Biology Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, and
| | - Saul Tzipori
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Global Health, Tufts Clinical and Translational Science Institute, North Grafton, Massachusetts 02111
| | - William D Picking
- From the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047
| | - Charles B Shoemaker
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Global Health, Tufts Clinical and Translational Science Institute, North Grafton, Massachusetts 02111
| | - Wendy L Picking
- From the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047,
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Song MY, Nguyen D, Hong SW, Kim BC. Broadly reactive aptamers targeting bacteria belonging to different genera using a sequential toggle cell-SELEX. Sci Rep 2017; 7:43641. [PMID: 28272554 PMCID: PMC5341558 DOI: 10.1038/srep43641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Conventional cell-SELEX aims to isolate aptamers to a single unique target bacteria species. We propose a method to isolate single-stranded DNA aptamers that have broad reactivity to multiple bacterial targets belonging to different genera. The key of the proposed method is that targets of interest are changed sequentially at each SELEX round. The general scheme was examined using six bacteria from different genera, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Citrobacter freundii, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus epidermidis (four gram-negative and two gram-positive bacteria). In the first round of SELEX, the DNA library was incubated with E. coli and amplicons bound to E. coli were separated. The amplicons were sequentially separated by incubation with E. aerogenes, K. pneumoniae, C. freundii, B. subtilis, and S. epidermidis at each SELEX. The amplicons obtained using the last bacterial species were incubated again with the first bacterial species and this loop was repeated two more times. We refer to this method as sequential toggle cell-SELEX (STC-SELEX). The isolated aptamers had dissociation constants of 9.22–38.5 nM and had no affinity to other bacteria that were not included in STC-SELEX. These results demonstrate the potential to isolate aptamers with broad affinity to bacterial taxa in different genera.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Young Song
- Center for Environment, Health and Welfare Research, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Dung Nguyen
- Department of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology (UST), Hwarangno 14-gil 5, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Seok Won Hong
- Department of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology (UST), Hwarangno 14-gil 5, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea.,Center for Water Resources Cycle Research, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Hwarangno 14-gil 5, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Byoung Chan Kim
- Center for Environment, Health and Welfare Research, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea.,Department of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology (UST), Hwarangno 14-gil 5, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
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