A Nematode Calreticulin, Rs-CRT, Is a Key Effector in Reproduction and Pathogenicity of Radopholus similis

Advances in Migratory Plant Endoparasitic Nematode Effectors

Unlike sedentary plant-parasitic nematodes, migratory plant endoparasitic nematodes (MPENs) are unable to establish permanent feeding sites, and all developmental stages (except eggs) can invade and feed on plant tissues and can be easily overlooked because of the unspecific symptoms. They cause numerous economic losses in agriculture, forestry, and horticulture. In order to understand the pathogenetic mechanism of MPENs, here we describe research on functions and host targets focused on currently identified effectors from six MPENs, namely Radopholus similis, Pratylenchus spp., Ditylenchus destructor, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, Aphelenchoides besseyi, and Hirschmanniella oryzae. This information will provide valuable insights into understanding MPEN effectors and for future fostering advancements in plant protection.

The nematode effector calreticulin competes with the high mobility group protein OsHMGB1 for binding to the rice calmodulin-like protein OsCML31 to enhance rice susceptibility to Meloidogyne graminicola

The root-knot nematode Meloidogyne graminicola secretes effectors into rice tissues to modulate host immunity. Here, we characterised MgCRT1, a calreticulin protein of M. graminicola, and identified its target in the plant. In situ hybridisation showed MgCRT1 mRNA accumulating in the subventral oesophageal gland in J2 nematodes. Immunolocalization indicated MgCRT1 localises in the giant cells during parasitism. Host-induced gene silencing of MgCRT1 reduced the infection ability of M. graminicola, while over-expressing MgCRT1 enhanced rice susceptibility to M. graminicola. A yeast two-hybrid approach identified the calmodulin-like protein OsCML31 as an interactor of MgCRT1. OsCML31 interacts with the high mobility group protein OsHMGB1 which is a conserved DNA binding protein. Knockout of OsCML31 or overexpression of OsHMGB1 in rice results in enhanced susceptibility to M. graminicola. In contrast, overexpression of OsCML31 or knockout of OsHMGB1 in rice decreases susceptibility to M. graminicola. The GST-pulldown and luciferase complementation imaging assay showed that MgCRT1 decreases the interaction of OsCML31 and OsHMGB1 in a competitive manner. In conclusion, when M. graminicola infects rice and secretes MgCRT1 into rice, MgCRT1 interacts with OsCML31 and decreases the association of OsCML31 with OsHMGB1, resulting in the release of OsHMGB1 to enhance rice susceptibility.

Transgenic East African Highland Banana Plants Are Protected against Radopholus similis through Host-Delivered RNAi

The burrowing nematode Radopholus similis is considered a major problem of intensive banana cultivation. It can cause extensive root damage resulting in the toppling disease of banana, which means that plants fall to the ground. Soaking R. similis in double-stranded (ds) RNA of the nematode genes Rps13, chitin synthase (Chs-2), Unc-87, Pat-10 or beta-1,4-endoglucanase (Eng1a) suppressed reproduction on carrot discs, from 2.8-fold (Chs-2) to 7-fold (Rps13). The East African Highland Banana cultivar Nakitembe was then transformed with constructs for expression of dsRNA against the same genes, and for each construct, 30 independent transformants were tested with nematode infection. Four months after transfer from in vitro culture to the greenhouse, the banana plants were transferred to a screenhouse and inoculated with 2000 nematodes per plant, and thirteen weeks later, they were analyzed for several parameters including plant growth, root necrosis and final nematode population. Plants with dsRNA constructs against the nematode genes were on average showing lower nematode multiplication and root damage than the nontransformed controls or the banana plants expressing dsRNA against the nonendogenous gene. In conclusion, RNAi seems to efficiently protect banana against damage caused by R. similis, opening perspectives to control this pest.

The many faces of parasite calreticulin

Calreticulin from parasites and its vertebrate hosts share ~50% identity and many of its functions are equally conserved. However, the existing amino acid differences can affect its biological performance. Calreticulin plays an important role in Ca2+ homeostasis and as a chaperone involved in the correct folding of proteins within the endoplasmic reticulum. Outside the endoplasmic reticulum, calreticulin is involved in several immunological functions such as complement inhibition, enhancement of efferocytosis, and immune upregulation or inhibition. Several parasite calreticulins have been shown to limit immune responses and promote infectivity, while others are strong immunogens and have been used for the development of potential vaccines that limit parasite growth. Furthermore, calreticulin is essential in the dialogue between parasites and hosts, inducing Th1, Th2 or regulatory responses in a species-specific manner. In addition, calreticulin participates as initiator of endoplasmic reticulum stress in tumor cells and promotion of immunogenic cell death and removal by macrophages. Direct anti-tumoral activity has also been reported. The highly immunogenic and pleiotropic nature of parasite calreticulins, either as positive or negative regulators of the immune response, render these proteins as valuable tools to modulate immunopathologies and autoimmune disorders, as well as a potential treatment of neoplasms. Moreover, the disparities in the amino acid composition of parasite calreticulins might provide subtle variations in the mechanisms of action that could provide advantages as therapeutic tools. Here, we review the immunological roles of parasite calreticulins and discuss possible beneficial applications.

Nematicidal Property of Clindamycin and 5-hydroxy-2-methyl Furfural (HMF) from the Banana Endophyte Bacillus velezensis (YEBBR6) Against Banana Burrowing Nematode Radopholus similis

Radopholus similis is a burrowing nematode which causes banana toppling disease and is of major economic threat for the banana production. Bacterial endophyte Bacillus velezensis (YEBBR6) produce biomolecules like 5-hydroxy-2-methyl furfural (HMF) and clindamycin in during interaction with Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense. Molecular modelling and docking studies were performed on Radopholus similis protein targets such as calreticulin, cathepsin S-like cysteine proteinase, β-1,4 -endoglucanase, reticulocalbin, venom allergen-like protein and serine carboxypeptidase to understand the mode of action of HMF and clindamycin against Radopholus similis. Structurally validated protein targets of R. similis were docked with biomolecules through AutoDock Vina module in PyRx 0.8 software to predict the binding energy of ligand and target protein. Among the chosen six targets, docking analysis revealed that clindamycin had the maximum binding affinity for β-1,4-endoglucanase (- 7.2 kcal/mol), reticulocalbin (- 7.5 kcal/mol) and serine carboxypeptidase (- 6.9 kcal/mol) in comparison with HMF and the nematicide, carbofuran 3G. Besides, clindamycin also had the maximum binding energy for the target sites calreticulin and venom allergen-like protein compared to the small molecule HMF. Novel molecule, clindamycin produced by B. velezensis served as a potential inhibitor of the target sites associated in interrupting the functions of β-1,4-endoglucanase, reticulocalbin, serine carboxypeptidase, calreticulin, cathepsin S-like cysteine proteinase, and venom allergen-like proteins. Besides, increased binding affinity of clindamycin with the protein target sites facilitated to explore it as a novel nematicidal molecule for the management of banana burrowing nematode R. similis. Thus, present investigation confirmed that, the small molecules clindamycin can be explored for nematicidal activity.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12088-022-01011-2.

Targeted transcriptomics reveals signatures of large-scale independent origins and concerted regulation of effector genes in Radopholus similis

The burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis, is an economically important plant-parasitic nematode that inflicts damage and yield loss to a wide range of crops. This migratory endoparasite is widely distributed in warmer regions and causes extensive destruction to the root systems of important food crops (e.g., citrus, banana). Despite the economic importance of this nematode, little is known about the repertoire of effectors owned by this species. Here we combined spatially and temporally resolved next-generation sequencing datasets of R. similis to select a list of candidates for the identification of effector genes for this species. We confirmed spatial expression of transcripts of 30 new candidate effectors within the esophageal glands of R. similis by in situ hybridization, revealing a large number of pioneer genes specific to this nematode. We identify a gland promoter motif specifically associated with the subventral glands (named Rs-SUG box), a putative hallmark of spatial and concerted regulation of these effectors. Nematode transcriptome analyses confirmed the expression of these effectors during the interaction with the host, with a large number of pioneer genes being especially abundant. Our data revealed that R. similis holds a diverse and emergent repertoire of effectors, which has been shaped by various evolutionary events, including neofunctionalization, horizontal gene transfer, and possibly by de novo gene birth. In addition, we also report the first GH62 gene so far discovered for any metazoan and putatively acquired by lateral gene transfer from a bacterial donor. Considering the economic damage caused by R. similis, this information provides valuable data to elucidate the mode of parasitism of this nematode.

A Venom Allergen-Like Protein, RsVAP, the First Discovered Effector Protein of Radopholus similis That Inhibits Plant Defense and Facilitates Parasitism

Radopholus similis is a migratory endoparasitic nematode that is extremely harmful to host plants. Venom allergen-like proteins (VAPs) are members of the cysteine-rich secretory protein family that are widely present in plants and animals. In this study, we cloned a VAP gene from R. similis, designated as RsVAP. RsVAP contains an open reading frame of 1089 bp encoding 362 amino acids. RsVAP is specifically expressed in the esophageal gland, and the expression levels of RsVAP are significantly higher in juveniles than in other life stages of R. similis. This expression pattern of RsVAP was consistent with the biological characteristics of juveniles of R. similis, which have the ability of infection and are the main infection stages of R. similis. The pathogenicity and reproduction rate of R. similis in tomato was significantly attenuated after RsVAP was silenced. In tobacco leaves transiently expressing RsVAP, the pathogen-associated molecular pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) induced by a bacterial flagellin fragment (flg22) was inhibited, while the cell death induced by two sets of immune elicitors (BAX and Gpa2/RBP-1) was repressed. The RsVAP-interacting, ras-related protein RABA1d (LeRabA1d) was identified in tomato hosts by yeast two-hybrid and co-immunoprecipitation assays. RsVAP may interact with LeRabA1d to affect the host defense response, which in turn facilitates nematode infection. This study provides the first evidence for the inhibition of plant defense response by a VAP from migratory plant-parasitic nematodes, and, for the first time, the target protein of R. similis in its host was identified.

HaCRT1 of Heterodera avenae Is Required for the Pathogenicity of the Cereal Cyst Nematode

Cereal cyst nematodes are sedentary biotrophic endoparasites that secrete effector proteins into plant tissues to transit normal cells into specialized feeding sites and suppress plant defenses. To understand the function of nematode effectors in Heterodera avenae, here, we identified a calreticulin protein HaCRT1, which could suppress the cell death induced by Bax when expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana. HaCRT1 is synthetized in the subventral gland cells of pre-parasitic second-stage nematodes. Real-time PCR assays indicated that the expression of HaCRT1 was highest in parasitic second-stage juveniles. The expression of an HaCRT1-RFP fusion in N. benthamiana revealed that it was localized in the endoplasmic reticulum of the plant cell. The ability of H. avenae infecting plants was significantly reduced when HaCRT1 was knocked down by RNA interference in vitro. Arabidopsis thaliana plants expressing HaCRT1 were more susceptible than wild-type plants to Pseudomonas syringae. The induction of defense-related genes, PAD4, WRKY33, FRK1, and WRKY29, after treatment with flg22 was suppressed in HaCRT1-transgenic plants. Also, the ROS accumulation induced by flg22 was reduced in the HaCRT1-transgenic plants compared to wild-type plants. HaCRT1 overexpression increased the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration in A. thaliana. These data suggested that HaCRT1 may contribute to the pathogenicity of H. avenae by suppressing host basal defense.

Current Insights into Migratory Endoparasitism: Deciphering the Biology, Parasitism Mechanisms, and Management Strategies of Key Migratory Endoparasitic Phytonematodes

Despite their physiological differences, sedentary and migratory plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs) share several commonalities. Functional characterization studies of key effectors and their targets identified in sedentary phytonematodes are broadly applied to migratory PPNs, generalizing parasitism mechanisms existing in distinct lifestyles. Despite their economic significance, host-pathogen interaction studies of migratory endoparasitic nematodes are limited; they have received little attention when compared to their sedentary counterparts. Because several migratory PPNs form disease complexes with other plant-pathogens, it is important to understand multiple factors regulating their feeding behavior and lifecycle. Here, we provide current insights into the biology, parasitism mechanism, and management strategies of the four-key migratory endoparasitic PPN genera, namely Pratylenchus, Radopholus, Ditylenchus, and Bursaphelenchus. Although this review focuses on these four genera, many facets of feeding mechanisms and management are common across all migratory PPNs and hence can be applied across a broad genera of migratory phytonematodes.

Identification and Characterization of a Fatty Acid- and Retinoid-Binding Protein Gene (Ar-far-1) from the Chrysanthemum Foliar Nematode, Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi

The chrysanthemum foliar nematode (CFN), Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi, is a migratory, plant-parasitic nematode that is widely distributed and infects the aboveground parts of many plants. The fatty acid- and retinoid-binding proteins (FAR) are nematode-specific proteins that are involved in the development, reproduction, and infection of nematodes and are secreted into the tissues to disrupt the plant defense reaction. In this study, we obtained the full-length sequence of the FAR gene (Ar-far-1) from CFN, which is 727 bp and includes a 546 bp ORF that encodes 181 amino acids. Ar-FAR-1 from CFN has the highest sequence similarity to Ab-FAR-1 from A. besseyi, and they are located within the same branch of the phylogenetic tree. Fluorescence-based ligand-binding analysis confirmed that recombinant Ar-FAR-1 was bound to fatty acids and retinol. Ar-far-1 mRNA was expressed in the muscle layer, intestine, female genital system, and egg of CFN, and more highly expressed in females than in males among the four developmental stages of CFN. We demonstrated that the reproduction number and infection capacity of CFN decreased significantly when Ar-far-1 was effectively silenced by in vitro RNAi. Ar-far-1 plays an important role in the development, reproduction, infectivity, and pathogenesis of CFN and may be used as an effective target gene for the control of CFN. The results provide meaningful data about the parasitic and pathogenic genes of CFN to study the interaction mechanism between plant-parasitic nematodes and hosts.

The genome of the migratory nematode, Radopholus similis, reveals signatures of close association to the sedentary cyst nematodes

Radopholus similis, commonly known as the burrowing nematode, is an important pest of myriad crops and ornamentals including banana (Musa spp.) and Citrus spp. In order to characterize the potential role of putative effectors encoded by R. similis genes we compared predicted proteins from a draft R. similis genome with other plant-parasitic nematodes in order to define the suite of excreted/secreted proteins that enable it to function as a parasite and to ascertain the phylogenetic position of R. similis in the Tylenchida order. Identification and analysis of candidate genes encoding for key plant cell-wall degrading enzymes including GH5 cellulases, PL3 pectate lyases and GH28 polygalactouranase revealed a pattern of occurrence similar to other PPNs, although with closest phylogenetic associations to the sedentary cyst nematodes. We also observed the absence of a suite of effectors essential for feeding site formation in the cyst nematodes. Clustering of various orthologous genes shared by R. similis with other nematodes showed higher overlap with the cyst nematodes than with the root-knot or other migratory endoparasitic nematodes. The data presented here support the hypothesis that R. similis is evolutionarily closer to the cyst nematodes, however, differences in the effector repertoire delineate ancient divergence of parasitism, probably as a consequence of niche specialization. These similarities and differences further underscore distinct evolutionary relationships during the evolution of parasitism in this group of nematodes.

Life-stage specific transcriptomes of a migratory endoparasitic plant nematode, Radopholus similis elucidate a different parasitic and life strategy of plant parasitic nematodes

Radopholus similis is an important migratory endoparasitic nematode, severely harms banana, citrus and many other commercial crops. Little is known about the molecular mechanism of infection and pathogenesis of R. similis. In this study, 64761 unigenes were generated from eggs, juveniles, females and males of R. similis. 11443 unigenes showed significant expression difference among these four life stages. Genes involved in host parasitism, anti-host defense and other biological processes were predicted. There were 86 and 102 putative genes coding for cell wall degrading enzymes and antioxidase respectively. The amount and type of putative parasitic-related genes reported in sedentary endoparasitic plant nematodes are variable from those of migratory parasitic nematodes on plant aerial portion. There were no sequences annotated to effectors in R. similis, involved in feeding site formation of sedentary endoparasites nematodes. This transcriptome data provides a new insight into the parasitic and pathogenic molecular mechanisms of the migratory endoparasitic nematodes. It also provides a broad idea for further research on R. similis.

An Effector, BxSapB1, Induces Cell Death and Contributes to Virulence in the Pine Wood Nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

The pine wood nematode (PWN) Bursaphelenchus xylophilus has caused serious damage to pine forests in China. Effectors secreted by phytonematodes play a role in host infection. We identified and characterized an effector, BxSapB1, based on the B. xylophilus transcriptome at the early stages of infection and the transient expression of proteins in Nicotiana benthamiana. BxSapB1 triggered cell death in N. benthamiana when secreted into the apoplast, and this effect was independent of N. benthamiana brassinosteroid-insensitive 1-associated kinase 1 (NbBAK1) and suppressor of BIR1-1 (NbSOBIR1). The signal peptide of BxSapB1 was proven to be functional in yeast using the yeast signal sequence trap system and BxSapB1 was strongly expressed in the subventral gland cells of B. xylophilus, as revealed by in-situ hybridization. In addition, based on local BLAST analysis, the BxSapB1 showed 100% identity to BUX.s00139.62, which was identified from the B. xylophilus secretome during Pinus thunbergii infection. BxSapB1 was upregulated in a highly virulent strain and downregulated in a weakly virulent strain of PWN at the early stages of infection. RNA interference assays showed that silencing BxSapB1 resulted in decreased expression of pathogenesis-related genes (PtPR-1b, PtPR-3, and PtPR-5) as well as delayed onset of symptoms in P. thunbergii infected by B. xylophilus. The combined data suggest that BxSapB1 can trigger cell death in N. benthamiana and that it contributes to the virulence in B. xylophilus during parasitic interaction.

Screening of reference genes in real-time PCR for Radopholus similis

Six candidate reference genes were chosen from the transcriptome database of Radopholus similis using the bioinformatics method, including four conventional reference genes (actin, Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF5A), Tubulin alpha (a-tubulin), ubiquitin (UBI)) and two new candidate reference genes (Ribosomal protein S21 (Rps21) and Serine/threonine protein phosphatase PP1-β catalytic subunit (β-PP1)). In addition, a traditional reference gene 18S ribosomal RNA (18S rRNA) obtained from NCBI databases was also added to the analysis. Real-time PCR was used to detect the expression of seven candidate reference genes in six populations of R. similis and four developmental stages (female, male, larva and egg) of a population. The stability of the expression of candidate genes was evaluated by three software programs, BestKeeper, geNorm and NormFinder. The results showed that eIF5A is the most suitable reference gene for gene functional research of different populations, while both Rps21 and eIF5A are the most suitable reference genes for different developmental stages of a population. Therefore, eIF5A is the best reference gene for studying R. similis. However, one defect of this study is that only seven candidate reference genes were analyzed; ideally, more genes should be tested.

Rational design of biosafe crop resistance to a range of nematodes using RNA interference

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules targeting two genes have been identified that suppress economically important parasitic nematode species of banana. Proteasomal alpha subunit 4 (pas-4) and Actin-4 (act-4) were identified from a survey of sequence databases and cloned sequences for genes conserved across four pests of banana, Radopholus similis, Pratylenchus coffeae, Meloidogyne incognita and Helicotylenchus multicinctus. These four species were targeted with dsRNAs containing exact 21 nucleotide matches to the conserved regions. Potential off-target effects were limited by comparison with Caenorhabditis, Drosophila, rat, rice and Arabidopsis genomes. In vitro act-4 dsRNA treatment of R. similis suppressed target gene expression by 2.3-fold, nematode locomotion by 66 ± 4% and nematode multiplication on carrot discs by 49 ± 5%. The best transgenic carrot hairy root lines expressing act-4 or pas-4 dsRNA reduced transcript message abundance of target genes in R. similis by 7.9-fold and fourfold and nematode multiplication by 94 ± 2% and 69 ± 3%, respectively. The same act-4 and pas-4 lines reduced P. coffeae target transcripts by 1.7- and twofold and multiplication by 50 ± 6% and 73 ± 8%. Multiplication of M. incognita on the pas-4 lines was reduced by 97 ± 1% and 99 ± 1% while target transcript abundance was suppressed 4.9- and 5.6-fold. There was no detectable RNAi effect on nontarget nematodes exposed to dsRNAs targeting parasitic nematodes. This work defines a framework for development of a range of nonprotein defences to provide broad resistance to pests and pathogens of crops.

Transgenic Nicotiana benthamiana plants expressing a hairpin RNAi construct of a nematode Rs-cps gene exhibit enhanced resistance to Radopholus similis

Burrowing nematodes (Radopholus similis) cause severe harm in many agronomic and horticultural crops and are very difficult to manage. Cathepsin S is one of the most important cysteine proteinases and plays key roles in nematodes and many other parasites. To evaluate the effect of in planta RNAi on the control of this nematode, a specific fragment from the protease gene, cathepsin S (Rs-cps), was cloned into the binary vector pFGC5941 in the forward and reverse orientations to construct recombinant plant RNAi vectors. Transgenic Nicotiana benthamiana plants expressing Rs-cps dsRNA were obtained and studied. The transcript abundance of Rs-cps dsRNA appeared to be diverse in the different transgenic lines. Moreover, the bioassay results revealed that Rs-cps transgenic N. benthamiana plants were resistant to R. similis and the transcription level of Rs-cps in R. similis was drastically decreased. In addition, the reproduction and hatching rate of R. similis isolated from the Rs-cps transgenic plants were also significantly reduced. Our results suggest that Rs-cps is essential for the reproduction and pathogenicity of R. similis. This is the first study to employ in planta RNAi approach to target the Rs-cps gene for the control of plant parasitic nematodes.

Genetically engineered bananas resistant to Xanthomonas wilt disease and nematodes

Banana is an important staple food crop feeding more than 100 million Africans, but is subject to severe productivity constraints due to a range of pests and diseases. Banana Xanthomonas wilt caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum is capable of entirely destroying a plantation while nematodes can cause losses up to 50% and increase susceptibility to other pests and diseases. Development of improved varieties of banana is fundamental in order to tackle these challenges. However, the sterile nature of the crop and the lack of resistance in Musa germplasm make improvement by traditional breeding techniques either impossible or extremely slow. Recent developments using genetic engineering have begun to address these problems. Transgenic banana expressing sweet pepper Hrap and Pflp genes have demonstrated complete resistance against X. campestris pv. musacearum in the field. Transgenic plantains expressing a cysteine proteinase inhibitors and/or synthetic peptide showed enhanced resistance to a mixed species population of nematodes in the field. Here, we review the genetic engineering technologies which have potential to improve agriculture and food security in Africa.

The Distribution of Lectins across the Phylum Nematoda: A Genome-Wide Search

Nematodes are a very diverse phylum that has adapted to nearly every ecosystem. They have developed specialized lifestyles, dividing the phylum into free-living, animal, and plant parasitic species. Their sheer abundance in numbers and presence in nearly every ecosystem make them the most prevalent animals on earth. In this research nematode-specific profiles were designed to retrieve predicted lectin-like domains from the sequence data of nematode genomes and transcriptomes. Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins that play numerous roles inside and outside the cell depending on their sugar specificity and associated protein domains. The sugar-binding properties of the retrieved lectin-like proteins were predicted in silico. Although most research has focused on C-type lectin-like, galectin-like, and calreticulin-like proteins in nematodes, we show that the lectin-like repertoire in nematodes is far more diverse. We focused on C-type lectins, which are abundantly present in all investigated nematode species, but seem to be far more abundant in free-living species. Although C-type lectin-like proteins are omnipresent in nematodes, we have shown that only a small part possesses the residues that are thought to be essential for carbohydrate binding. Curiously, hevein, a typical plant lectin domain not reported in animals before, was found in some nematode species.

Smart Parasitic Nematodes Use Multifaceted Strategies to Parasitize Plants

Nematodes are omnipresent in nature including many species which are parasitic to plants and cause enormous economic losses in various crops. During the process of parasitism, sedentary phytonematodes use their stylet to secrete effector proteins into the plant cells to induce the development of specialized feeding structures. These effectors are used by the nematodes to develop compatible interactions with plants, partly by mimicking the expression of host genes. Intensive research is going on to investigate the molecular function of these effector proteins in the plants. In this review, we have summarized which physiological and molecular changes occur when endoparasitic nematodes invade the plant roots and how they develop a successful interaction with plants using the effector proteins. We have also mentioned the host genes which are induced by the nematodes for a compatible interaction. Additionally, we discuss how nematodes modulate the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and RNA silencing pathways in addition to post-translational modifications in their own favor for successful parasitism in plants.

The cathepsin S cysteine proteinase of the burrowing nematode Radopholus similis is essential for the reproduction and invasion

BACKGROUND

The nematode Radopholus similis is an important migratory endoparasite of plants. Cysteine proteinases such as cathepsin S (CPS) play key roles during embryonic development, invasion, and pathogenesis in nematodes and many other animal parasites. This study was designed to investigate the molecular characterization and functions of a cathepsin S protease in R. similis and to find new targets for its control.

RESULTS

Rs-CPS of R. similis, Hg-CPS of Heterodera glycines and Ha-CPS of H. avenae are closely genetically related and share the same branch of the phylogenetic tree. Rs-cps is a multi-copy gene that is expressed in the esophageal glands, ovaries, testes, vas deferens, and eggs of R. similis. Rs-cps mRNA transcripts are expressed at varying levels during all developmental stages of R. similis. Rs-cps expression was highest in females. The neurostimulant octopamine did not significantly enhance the ingestion of the dsRNA soaking solution by R. similis but instead had a detrimental effect on nematode activity. The dsRNA soaking solution diffused into the body of R. similis not only through the esophageal lumen but also through the amphids, excretory duct, vagina, anus and cloacal orifice. We confirmed that RNAi significantly suppressed the expression level of Rs-cps and reproductive capability and pathogenicity of R. similis.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that Rs-cps plays important roles in the reproduction, parasitism and pathogenesis of R. similis and could be used as a new potential target for controlling plant parasitic nematodes.