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Yang M, Li H, Qiao H, Guo K, Xu R, Wei H, Wei J, Liu S, Xu C. Integrated Transcriptome and Metabolome Dynamic Analysis of Galls Induced by the Gall Mite Aceria pallida on Lycium barbarum Reveals the Molecular Mechanism Underlying Gall Formation and Development. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:9839. [PMID: 37372986 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24129839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Galls have become the best model for exploring plant-gall inducer relationships, with most studies focusing on gall-inducing insects but few on gall mites. The gall mite Aceria pallida is a major pest of wolfberry, usually inducing galls on its leaves. For a better understanding of gall mite growth and development, the dynamics of the morphological and molecular characteristics and phytohormones of galls induced by A. pallida were studied by histological observation, transcriptomics and metabolomics. The galls developed from cell elongation of the epidermis and cell hyperplasia of mesophylls. The galls grew quickly, within 9 days, and the mite population increased rapidly within 18 days. The genes involved in chlorophyll biosynthesis, photosynthesis and phytohormone synthesis were significantly downregulated in galled tissues, but the genes associated with mitochondrial energy metabolism, transmembrane transport, carbohydrates and amino acid synthesis were distinctly upregulated. The levels of carbohydrates, amino acids and their derivatives, and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and cytokinins (CKs), were markedly enhanced in galled tissues. Interestingly, much higher contents of IAA and CKs were detected in gall mites than in plant tissues. These results suggest that galls act as nutrient sinks and favor increased accumulation of nutrients for mites, and that gall mites may contribute IAA and CKs during gall formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengke Yang
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Huanle Li
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Haili Qiao
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Kun Guo
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Rong Xu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Hongshuang Wei
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jianhe Wei
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Sai Liu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Changqing Xu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
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2
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Martinson EO, Werren JH, Egan SP. Tissue-specific gene expression shows a cynipid wasp repurposes oak host gene networks to create a complex and novel parasite-specific organ. Mol Ecol 2021; 31:3228-3240. [PMID: 34510608 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Every organism on Earth depends on interactions with other organisms to survive. In each of these interactions, an organism must utilize the limited toolbox of genes and proteins it possesses to successfully manipulate or cooperate with another species, but it can also co-opt the genome machinery of its partner to expand its available tools. Insect-induced plant galls are an extreme example of this, wherein an insect hijacks the plant's genome to direct the initiation and development of galls consisting of plant tissue. However, previous transcriptomic studies have not evaluated individual tissues within a gall to determine the full extent to which a galling insect manipulates its host plant. Here we demonstrate that the cynipid wasp Dryocosmus quercuspalustris creates a complex parasite-specific organ from red oak tissue via massive changes in host gene expression. Our results show that the gall wasp is not merely modifying oak leaf tissue but creating extensive changes in gene expression between galled and ungalled tissue (differential expression in 28% of genes) and distinct gall tissue types (20% of genes). The outer gall tissue shows increases in various plant defence systems, which is consistent with its predicted functional role of protecting the wasp larva. The inner larval capsule shows suppression of large parts of the plant innate immune system and evidence for the wasp utilizing the plant's RNA interference mechanisms, which may be a potential mechanism for the wasp's control on gall growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen O Martinson
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA.,Biology Department, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - John H Werren
- Biology Department, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Scott P Egan
- Department of BioSciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas, USA
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3
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Borges RM. Interactions Between Figs and Gall-Inducing Fig Wasps: Adaptations, Constraints, and Unanswered Questions. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.685542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The ancient interaction between figs (Ficus, Moraceae) and their pollinating fig wasps is an unusual example of a mutualism between plants and gall-inducing insects. This review intends to offer fresh perspectives into the relationship between figs and the diversity of gall-inducing sycophiles which inhabit their enclosed globular inflorescences that function as microcosms. Besides gall-inducing pollinators, fig inflorescences are also inhabited by other gall-inducing wasps. This review evaluates the state of current knowledge on gall-induction by fig wasps and exposes the many lacunae in this area. This review makes connections between fig and gall-inducing wasp traits, and suggests relatively unexplored research avenues. This manuscript calls for an integrated approach that incorporates such diverse fields as life-history theory, plant mate choice, wasp sexual selection and local mate competition, plant embryology as well as seed and fruit dispersal. It calls for collaboration between researchers such as plant developmental biologists, insect physiologists, chemical ecologists and sensory biologists to jointly solve the many valuable questions that can be addressed in community ecology, co-evolution and species interaction biology using the fig inflorescence microcosm, that is inhabited by gall-inducing mutualistic and parasitic wasps, as a model system.
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4
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Wang R, Yang Y, Jing Y, Segar ST, Zhang Y, Wang G, Chen J, Liu QF, Chen S, Chen Y, Cruaud A, Ding YY, Dunn DW, Gao Q, Gilmartin PM, Jiang K, Kjellberg F, Li HQ, Li YY, Liu JQ, Liu M, Machado CA, Ming R, Rasplus JY, Tong X, Wen P, Yang HM, Yang JJ, Yin Y, Zhang XT, Zhang YY, Yu H, Yue Z, Compton SG, Chen XY. Molecular mechanisms of mutualistic and antagonistic interactions in a plant-pollinator association. Nat Ecol Evol 2021; 5:974-986. [PMID: 34002050 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-021-01469-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Many insects metamorphose from antagonistic larvae into mutualistic adult pollinators, with reciprocal adaptation leading to specialized insect-plant associations. It remains unknown how such interactions are established at molecular level. Here we assemble high-quality genomes of a fig species, Ficus pumila var. pumila, and its specific pollinating wasp, Wiebesia pumilae. We combine multi-omics with validation experiments to reveal molecular mechanisms underlying this specialized interaction. In the plant, we identify the specific compound attracting pollinators and validate the function of several key genes regulating its biosynthesis. In the pollinator, we find a highly reduced number of odorant-binding protein genes and an odorant-binding protein mainly binding the attractant. During antagonistic interaction, we find similar chemical profiles and turnovers throughout the development of galled ovules and seeds, and a significant contraction of detoxification-related gene families in the pollinator. Our study identifies some key genes bridging coevolved mutualists, establishing expectations for more diffuse insect-pollinator systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Wang
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi Jing
- BGI Genomics, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, China
| | - Simon T Segar
- Agriculture and Environment Department, Harper Adams University, Newport, UK
| | - Yu Zhang
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Gang Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, China
| | - Jin Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, China
| | | | - Shan Chen
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Chen
- Ecological Security and Protection Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Mianyang Normal University, Mianyang, China
| | | | - Yuan-Yuan Ding
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Derek W Dunn
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Qiang Gao
- BGI Genomics, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, China
| | - Philip M Gilmartin
- Department of Biological and Marine Science, University of Hull, Hull, UK
| | - Kai Jiang
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Finn Kjellberg
- CEFE, CNRS, University of Montpellier, Paul Valéry University Montpellier, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Hong-Qing Li
- School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuan-Yuan Li
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jian-Quan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Min Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Carlos A Machado
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Ray Ming
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | | | - Xin Tong
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping Wen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, China
| | | | - Jing-Jun Yang
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ye Yin
- BGI Genomics, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xing-Tan Zhang
- Center for Genomics and Biotechnology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, Key Laboratory of Genetics, Breeding and Multiple Utilization of Corps, Ministry of Education, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Yuan-Ye Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Hui Yu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Sustainable Utilization, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China. .,School of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu, China.
| | - Zhen Yue
- BGI Genomics, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, China.
| | | | - Xiao-Yong Chen
- Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration, School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China. .,Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, China.
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5
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Portillo Lemus L, Tricard J, Duclercq J, Coulette Q, Giron D, Hano C, Huguet E, Lamblin F, Cherqui A, Sallé A. Salivary proteins of Phloeomyzus passerinii, a plant-manipulating aphid, and their impact on early gene responses of susceptible and resistant poplar genotypes. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 294:110468. [PMID: 32234233 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2020.110468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Successful plant colonization by parasites requires the circumvention of host defenses, and sometimes a reprogramming of host metabolism, mediated by effector molecules delivered into the host. Using transcriptomic and enzymatic approaches, we characterized salivary glands and saliva of Phloeomyzus passerinii, an aphid exhibiting an atypical feeding strategy. Plant responses to salivary extracts of P. passerinii and Myzus persicae were assessed with poplar protoplasts of a susceptible and a resistant genotype, and in a heterologous Arabidopsis system. We predict that P. passerinii secretes a highly peculiar saliva containing effectors potentially interfering with host defenses, biotic stress signaling and plant metabolism, notably phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinases which seemed specific to P. passerinii. Gene expression profiles indicated that salivary extracts of M. persicae markedly affected host defenses and biotic stress signaling, while salivary extracts of P. passerinii induced only weak responses. The effector-triggered susceptibility was characterized by downregulations of genes involved in cytokinin signaling and auxin homeostasis. This suggests that P. passerinii induces an intracellular accumulation of auxin in susceptible host genotypes, which is supported by histochemical assays in Arabidopsis. This might in turn affect biotic stress signaling and contribute to host tissue manipulation by the aphid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Portillo Lemus
- Laboratoire de Biologie des Ligneux et des Grandes Cultures, INRA, Université d'Orléans, 45067, Orléans, France; Ecologie et Dynamique des Systèmes Anthropisés, EDYSAN UMR CNRS-UPJV 7058, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, Amiens, France
| | - Jessy Tricard
- Laboratoire de Biologie des Ligneux et des Grandes Cultures, INRA, Université d'Orléans, 45067, Orléans, France; Ecologie et Dynamique des Systèmes Anthropisés, EDYSAN UMR CNRS-UPJV 7058, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, Amiens, France
| | - Jérôme Duclercq
- Ecologie et Dynamique des Systèmes Anthropisés, EDYSAN UMR CNRS-UPJV 7058, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, Amiens, France
| | - Quentin Coulette
- Ecologie et Dynamique des Systèmes Anthropisés, EDYSAN UMR CNRS-UPJV 7058, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, Amiens, France
| | - David Giron
- Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l'Insecte, UMR 7261, CNRS/Université François-Rabelais de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Christophe Hano
- Laboratoire de Biologie des Ligneux et des Grandes Cultures, INRA, Université d'Orléans, 45067, Orléans, France
| | - Elisabeth Huguet
- Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l'Insecte, UMR 7261, CNRS/Université François-Rabelais de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Frédéric Lamblin
- Laboratoire de Biologie des Ligneux et des Grandes Cultures, INRA, Université d'Orléans, 45067, Orléans, France
| | - Anas Cherqui
- Ecologie et Dynamique des Systèmes Anthropisés, EDYSAN UMR CNRS-UPJV 7058, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, Amiens, France
| | - Aurélien Sallé
- Laboratoire de Biologie des Ligneux et des Grandes Cultures, INRA, Université d'Orléans, 45067, Orléans, France.
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6
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Abstract
Abstract
Fig tree–fig wasp mutualisms are diverse and underpin much biodiversity. The wasps (Agaonidae) are the sole pollinators of the trees (Ficus). Figs are enclosed inflorescences, each of which contains many small flowers. Female wasps (foundresses) enter receptive figs to spread pollen and to lay their eggs individually into fig flowers. As they oviposit, wasps also inject chemicals that transform individual flower ovaries into galls that will feed and house wasp offspring. For fig tree–fig wasp mutualisms to persist, the trees must set seed; therefore, the wasps have both to pollinate and to fail to gall all flower ovaries. However, wasps that avoid pollination costs and/or gall all flowers are predicted to outcompete more cooperative conspecifics, resulting in destabilisation of the mutualism. Here, I review the literature on why wasps pollinate by focusing on how trees reduce investment to unpollinated figs, resulting in ‘sanctions’ to wasps that fail to pollinate via reduced production of offspring. I also review the mechanisms that prevent wasps from galling all flowers, mainly those in monoecious Ficus, that also result in wasps predominantly galling longer flowers whilst leaving shorter flowers to become seeds. I make suggestions for future work and conclude by reaffirming why multiple processes promote stability in fig tree–fig wasp mutualisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek W Dunn
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xian, China
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7
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Harris MO, Pitzschke A. Plants make galls to accommodate foreigners: some are friends, most are foes. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2020; 225:1852-1872. [PMID: 31774564 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
At the colonization site of a foreign entity, plant cells alter their trajectory of growth and development. The resulting structure - a plant gall - accommodates various needs of the foreigner, which are phylogenetically diverse: viruses, bacteria, protozoa, oomycetes, true fungi, parasitic plants, and many types of animals, including rotifers, nematodes, insects, and mites. The plant species that make galls also are diverse. We assume gall production costs the plant. All is well if the foreigner provides a gift that makes up for the cost. Nitrogen-fixing nodule-inducing bacteria provide nutritional services. Gall wasps pollinate fig trees. Unfortunately for plants, most galls are made for foes, some of which are deeply studied pathogens and pests: Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Rhodococcus fascians, Xanthomonas citri, Pseudomonas savastanoi, Pantoea agglomerans, 'Candidatus' phytoplasma, rust fungi, Ustilago smuts, root knot and cyst nematodes, and gall midges. Galls are an understudied phenomenon in plant developmental biology. We propose gall inception for discovering unifying features of the galls that plants make for friends and foes, talk about molecules that plants and gall-inducers use to get what they want from each other, raise the question of whether plants colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi respond in a gall-like manner, and present a research agenda.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion O Harris
- Department of Entomology, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58014, USA
| | - Andrea Pitzschke
- Department of Biosciences, Salzburg University, Hellbrunner Strasse 34, A-5020, Salzburg, Austria
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8
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Andreas P, Kisiala A, Emery RJN, De Clerck-Floate R, Tooker JF, Price PW, Miller III DG, Chen MS, Connor EF. Cytokinins Are Abundant and Widespread Among Insect Species. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 9:E208. [PMID: 32041320 PMCID: PMC7076654 DOI: 10.3390/plants9020208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Cytokinins (CKs) are a class of compounds that have long been thought to be exclusively plant growth regulators. Interestingly, some species of phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi have been shown to, and gall-inducing insects have been hypothesized to, produce CKs and use them to manipulate their host plants. We used high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) to examine concentrations of a wide range of CKs in 17 species of phytophagous insects, including gall- and non-gall-inducing species from all six orders of Insecta that contain species known to induce galls: Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera. We found CKs in all six orders of insects, and they were not associated exclusively with gall-inducing species. We detected 24 different CK analytes, varying in their chemical structure and biological activity. Isoprenoid precursor nucleotide and riboside forms of trans-zeatin (tZ) and isopentenyladenine (iP) were most abundant and widespread across the surveyed insect species. Notably, the observed concentrations of CKs often markedly exceeded those reported in plants suggesting that insects are synthesizing CKs rather than obtaining them from the host plant via tissue consumption, compound sequestration, and bioaccumulation. These findings support insect-derived CKs as means for gall-inducing insects to manipulate their host plant to facilitate cell proliferation, and for both gall- and non-gall-inducing insects to modify nutrient flux and plant defenses during herbivory. Furthermore, wide distribution of CKs across phytophagous insects, including non-gall-inducing species, suggests that insect-borne CKs could be involved in manipulation of source-sink mechanisms of nutrient allocation to sustain the feeding site and altering plant defensive responses, rather than solely gall induction. Given the absence of any evidence for genes in the de novo CK biosynthesis pathway in insects, we postulate that the tRNA-ipt pathway is responsible for CK production. However, the unusually high concentrations of CKs in insects, and the tendency toward dominance of their CK profiles by tZ and iP suggest that the tRNA-ipt pathway functions differently and substantially more efficiently in insects than in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Andreas
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9J 7B8, Canada; (P.A.); (A.K.); (R.J.N.E.)
| | - Anna Kisiala
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9J 7B8, Canada; (P.A.); (A.K.); (R.J.N.E.)
| | - R. J. Neil Emery
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9J 7B8, Canada; (P.A.); (A.K.); (R.J.N.E.)
| | | | - John F. Tooker
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA;
| | - Peter W. Price
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86001, USA;
| | - Donald G. Miller III
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Chico, CA 95929, USA;
| | - Ming-Shun Chen
- USDA-ARS and Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA;
| | - Edward F. Connor
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
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9
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Hearn J, Blaxter M, Schönrogge K, Nieves-Aldrey JL, Pujade-Villar J, Huguet E, Drezen JM, Shorthouse JD, Stone GN. Genomic dissection of an extended phenotype: Oak galling by a cynipid gall wasp. PLoS Genet 2019; 15:e1008398. [PMID: 31682601 PMCID: PMC6855507 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Galls are plant tissues whose development is induced by another organism for the inducer's benefit. 30,000 arthropod species induce galls, and in most cases the inducing effectors and target plant systems are unknown. Cynipid gall wasps are a speciose monophyletic radiation that induce structurally complex galls on oaks and other plants. We used a model system comprising the gall wasp Biorhiza pallida and the oak Quercus robur to characterise inducer and host plant gene expression at defined stages through the development of galled and ungalled plant tissues, and tested alternative hypotheses for the origin and type of galling effectors and plant metabolic pathways involved. Oak gene expression patterns diverged markedly during development of galled and normal buds. Young galls showed elevated expression of oak genes similar to legume root nodule Nod factor-induced early nodulin (ENOD) genes and developmental parallels with oak buds. In contrast, mature galls showed substantially different patterns of gene expression to mature leaves. While most oak transcripts could be functionally annotated, many gall wasp transcripts of interest were novel. We found no evidence in the gall wasp for involvement of third-party symbionts in gall induction, for effector delivery using virus-like-particles, or for gallwasp expression of genes coding for plant hormones. Many differentially and highly expressed genes in young larvae encoded secretory peptides, which we hypothesise are effector proteins exported to plant tissues. Specifically, we propose that host arabinogalactan proteins and gall wasp chitinases interact in young galls to generate a somatic embryogenesis-like process in oak tissues surrounding the gall wasp larvae. Gall wasp larvae also expressed genes encoding multiple plant cell wall degrading enzymes (PCWDEs). These have functional orthologues in other gall inducing cynipids but not in figitid parasitoid sister groups, suggesting that they may be evolutionary innovations associated with cynipid gall induction. Plant galls are induced by organisms that manipulate host plant development to produce novel structures. The organisms involved range from mutualistic (such as nitrogen fixing bacteria) to parasitic. In the case of parasites, the gall benefits only the gall-inducing partner. A wide range of organisms can induce galls, but the processes involved are understood only for some bacterial and fungal galls. Cynipid gall wasps induce diverse and structurally complex galls, particularly on oaks (Quercus). We used transcriptome and genome sequencing for one gall wasp and its host oak to identify genes active in gall development. On the plant side, when compared to normally developing bud tissues, young gall tissues showed elevated expression of loci similar to those found in nitrogen-fixing root nodules of leguminous plants. On the wasp side, we found no evidence for involvement of viruses or microorganisms carried by the insects in gall induction or delivery of inducing stimuli. We found that gall wasps express many genes whose products may be secreted to the host, including enzymes that degrade plant cell walls. Genome comparisons between galling and non-galling relatives showed cell wall-degrading enzymes are restricted to gall inducers, and hence potentially key components of a gall inducing lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack Hearn
- Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, King’s Buildings, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (JH); (GNS)
| | - Mark Blaxter
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, King’s Buildings, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | | | - José-Luis Nieves-Aldrey
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Elisabeth Huguet
- UMR 7261 CNRS, Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l’Insecte, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université de Tours, France
| | - Jean-Michel Drezen
- UMR 7261 CNRS, Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l’Insecte, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université de Tours, France
| | | | - Graham N. Stone
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, King’s Buildings, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (JH); (GNS)
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10
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Cambier S, Ginis O, Moreau SJM, Gayral P, Hearn J, Stone GN, Giron D, Huguet E, Drezen JM. Gall Wasp Transcriptomes Unravel Potential Effectors Involved in Molecular Dialogues With Oak and Rose. Front Physiol 2019; 10:926. [PMID: 31396099 PMCID: PMC6667641 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
To gain insight into wasp factors that might be involved in the initial induction of galls on woody plants, we performed high throughput (454) transcriptome analysis of ovaries and venom glands of two cynipid gall wasps, Biorhiza pallida and Diplolepis rosae, inducing galls on oak and rose, respectively. De novo assembled and annotated contigs were compared to sequences from phylogenetically related parasitoid wasps. The relative expression levels of contigs were estimated to identify the most expressed gene sequences in each tissue. We identify for the first time a set of maternally expressed gall wasp proteins potentially involved in the interaction with the plant. Some genes highly expressed in venom glands and ovaries may act to suppress early plant defense signaling. We also identify gall wasp cellulases that could be involved in observed local lysis of plant tissue following oviposition, and which may have been acquired from bacteria by horizontal gene transfer. We find no evidence of virus-related gene expression, in contrast to many non-cynipid parasitoid wasps. By exploring gall wasp effectors, this study is a first step toward understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying cynipid gall induction in woody plants, and the recent sequencing of oak and rose genomes will enable study of plant responses to these factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Cambier
- UMR 7261 CNRS, Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l’Insecte, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Olivia Ginis
- UMR 7261 CNRS, Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l’Insecte, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Sébastien J. M. Moreau
- UMR 7261 CNRS, Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l’Insecte, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Philippe Gayral
- UMR 7261 CNRS, Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l’Insecte, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Jack Hearn
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Graham N. Stone
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - David Giron
- UMR 7261 CNRS, Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l’Insecte, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Elisabeth Huguet
- UMR 7261 CNRS, Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l’Insecte, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université de Tours, Tours, France
| | - Jean-Michel Drezen
- UMR 7261 CNRS, Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l’Insecte, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université de Tours, Tours, France
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11
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Elias LG, Silva DB, Silva R, Peng YQ, Yang DR, Lopes NP, Pereira RAS. A comparative venomic fingerprinting approach reveals that galling and non-galling fig wasp species have different venom profiles. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0207051. [PMID: 30408087 PMCID: PMC6224076 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The galling habit represents a complex type of interaction between insects and plants, ranging from antagonism to mutualism. The obligate pollination mutualism between Ficus and fig wasps relies strongly on the induction of galls in Ficus flowers, where wasps' offspring develop. Even though gall induction plays an important role in many insect-plant interactions, the mechanisms that trigger gall formation are still not completely known. Using a fingerprinting approach, we show here that venom protein profiles from galling fig wasps differ from the venom profiles of non-galling species, suggesting the secretion plays different roles according to the type of interaction it is involved in. Each studied cleptoparasitic species had a distinct venom profile, suggesting that cleptoparasitism in fig wasps covers a vast diversity of molecular interactions. Fig wasp venoms are mainly composed of peptides. No low molecular weight compounds were detected by UPLC-DAD-MS, suggesting that such compounds (e.g., IAA and cytokinines) are not involved in gall induction. The differences in venom composition observed between galling and non-galling fig wasp species bring new perspectives to the study of gall induction processes and the role of insect secretions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa G. Elias
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Denise B. Silva
- Laboratório de Produtos Naturais e Espectrometria de Massas (LaPNEM), Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Produtos Naturais e Sintéticos (NPPNS), Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Silva
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Produtos Naturais e Sintéticos (NPPNS), Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Yan-Qiong Peng
- Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun, Mengla, Yunnan, China
| | - Da-Rong Yang
- Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun, Mengla, Yunnan, China
| | - Norberto P. Lopes
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Produtos Naturais e Sintéticos (NPPNS), Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo A. S. Pereira
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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12
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Patel S, Rauf A, Khan H. The relevance of folkloric usage of plant galls as medicines: Finding the scientific rationale. Biomed Pharmacother 2017; 97:240-247. [PMID: 29091872 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.10.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 10/21/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Galls, the abnormal growths in plants, induced by virus, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, arthropods, or even other plants, are akin to cancers in fauna. The galls which occur in a myriad of forms are phytochemically-distinct from the normal plant tissues, for these are the sites of tug-of-war, just like the granuloma in animals. To counter the stressors, in the form of the effector proteins of the invaders, the host plants elaborate a large repertoire of metabolites, which they normally will not produce. Perturbation of the jasmonic acid pathway, and the overexpression of auxin, and cytokinin, promote the tissue proliferation and the resultant galls. Though the plant family characteristics and the attackers determine the gall biochemistry, most of the galls are rich in bioactive phytochemicals such as phenolic acids, anthocyanins, purpurogallin, flavonoids, tannins, steroids, triterpenes, alkaloids, lipophilic components (tanshinone) etc. Throughout the long trajectory of evolution, humans have learned to use the galls as therapeutics, much like other plant parts. In diverse cultures, the evidence of folkloric usage of galls abound. Among others, galls from the plant genus like Rhus, Pistacia, Quercus, Terminalia etc. are popular as ethnomedicine. This review mines the literature on galling agents, and the medicinal relevance of galls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seema Patel
- Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics Research Center, San Diego State University, San Diego, 92182, USA.
| | - Abdur Rauf
- Department of Chemistry, University of Swabi, Anbar, 23561, K.P.K, Pakistan
| | - Haroon Khan
- Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, 23200, Pakistan
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13
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Oates CN, Denby KJ, Myburg AA, Slippers B, Naidoo S. Insect Gallers and Their Plant Hosts: From Omics Data to Systems Biology. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:E1891. [PMID: 27869732 PMCID: PMC5133890 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17111891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Gall-inducing insects are capable of exerting a high level of control over their hosts' cellular machinery to the extent that the plant's development, metabolism, chemistry, and physiology are all altered in favour of the insect. Many gallers are devastating pests in global agriculture and the limited understanding of their relationship with their hosts prevents the development of robust management strategies. Omics technologies are proving to be important tools in elucidating the mechanisms involved in the interaction as they facilitate analysis of plant hosts and insect effectors for which little or no prior knowledge exists. In this review, we examine the mechanisms behind insect gall development using evidence from omics-level approaches. The secretion of effector proteins and induced phytohormonal imbalances are highlighted as likely mechanisms involved in gall development. However, understanding how these components function within the system is far from complete and a number of questions need to be answered before this information can be used in the development of strategies to engineer or breed plants with enhanced resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caryn N Oates
- Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute (GRI), University of Pretoria, Private Bag x20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa.
| | - Katherine J Denby
- Department of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, York YO10 5DD, UK.
| | - Alexander A Myburg
- Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute (GRI), University of Pretoria, Private Bag x20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa.
| | - Bernard Slippers
- Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute (GRI), University of Pretoria, Private Bag x20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa.
| | - Sanushka Naidoo
- Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute (GRI), University of Pretoria, Private Bag x20, Pretoria 0028, South Africa.
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14
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Li ZT, Peng YQ, Wen XL, Jandér KC. Selective resource allocation may promote a sex ratio in pollinator fig wasps more beneficial for the host tree. Sci Rep 2016; 6:35159. [PMID: 27731351 PMCID: PMC5059716 DOI: 10.1038/srep35159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutualisms play a key role in most ecosystems, yet the mechanisms that prevent overexploitation of the mutualistic relationship are still poorly understood. In the mutualism between fig trees and their pollinating wasps both partners depend on each other. Fig trees benefit from female wasps that disperse their pollen, whereas wasps frequently benefit from a higher ratio of male offspring. Here we use manipulative field experiments to address whether host trees (Ficus racemosa) can influence the offspring sex ratio of the pollinator wasp. We controlled wasp matings; virgin wasps can lay only male eggs. We found that virgin foundress wasps had fewer offspring than mated foundresses. This was not caused by virgin wasps having a shorter lifespan, or laying fewer eggs. Instead, male wasp larvae were more likely to die during development. Additionally, male eggs were deposited in flowers of equal style length to those of female eggs, yet emerged from galls with shorter pedicels than those of female wasps. We suggest that male larvae are either allocated less resources by the tree, or are less able to attract resources, during development. If the tree orchestrates this difference it would promote a more female-biased wasp brood, thus increasing the tree’s fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao-Tian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, Yunnan, China.,Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650204, Yunnan, China
| | - Yan-Qiong Peng
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun 666303, Yunnan, China
| | - Xiao-Lan Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, Yunnan, China.,Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650204, Yunnan, China
| | - K Charlotte Jandér
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, 26 Oxford Street, Harvard University, Cambridge MA 02138, USA
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15
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Paulson AR, Le CH, Dickson JC, Ehlting J, von Aderkas P, Perlman SJ. Transcriptome analysis provides insight into venom evolution in a seed-parasitic wasp, Megastigmus spermotrophus. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2016; 25:604-16. [PMID: 27286234 DOI: 10.1111/imb.12247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
One of the most striking host range transitions is the evolution of plant parasitism from animal parasitism. Parasitoid wasps that have secondarily evolved to attack plants (ie gall wasps and seed-feeders) demonstrate intimate associations with their hosts, yet the mechanism of plant-host manipulation is currently not known. There is, however, emerging evidence suggesting that ovipositional secretions play a role in plant manipulation. To investigate whether parasites have modified pre-existing adaptations to facilitate dramatic host shifts we aimed to characterize the expression of venom proteins in a plant parasite using a collection of parasitoid venom sequences as a guide. The transcriptome of a seed-feeding wasp, Megastigmus spermotrophus, was assembled de novo and three putative venoms were found to be highly expressed in adult females. One of these putative venoms, aspartylglucosaminidase, has been previously identified as a major venom component in two distantly related parasitoid wasps (Asobara tabida and Leptopilina heterotoma) and may have originated via gene duplication within the Hymenoptera. Our study shows that M. spermotrophus, a specialized plant parasite, expresses putative venom transcripts that share homology to venoms identified in Nasonia vitripennis (both superfamily Chalcidoidea), which suggests that M. spermotrophus may have co-opted pre-existing machinery to develop as a plant parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Paulson
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
| | - C H Le
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - J C Dickson
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - J Ehlting
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - P von Aderkas
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - S J Perlman
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Integrated Microbial Biodiversity Program, Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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16
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Giron D, Huguet E, Stone GN, Body M. Insect-induced effects on plants and possible effectors used by galling and leaf-mining insects to manipulate their host-plant. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2016; 84:70-89. [PMID: 26723843 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2015.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2015] [Revised: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Gall-inducing insects are iconic examples in the manipulation and reprogramming of plant development, inducing spectacular morphological and physiological changes of host-plant tissues within which the insect feeds and grows. Despite decades of research, effectors involved in gall induction and basic mechanisms of gall formation remain unknown. Recent research suggests that some aspects of the plant manipulation shown by gall-inducers may be shared with other insect herbivorous life histories. Here, we illustrate similarities and contrasts by reviewing current knowledge of metabolic and morphological effects induced on plants by gall-inducing and leaf-mining insects, and ask whether leaf-miners can also be considered to be plant reprogrammers. We review key plant functions targeted by various plant reprogrammers, including plant-manipulating insects and nematodes, and functionally characterize insect herbivore-derived effectors to provide a broader understanding of possible mechanisms used in host-plant manipulation. Consequences of plant reprogramming in terms of ecology, coevolution and diversification of plant-manipulating insects are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Giron
- Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l'Insecte, UMR 7261, CNRS/Université François-Rabelais de Tours, Parc Grandmont, 37200 Tours, France.
| | - Elisabeth Huguet
- Institut de Recherche sur la Biologie de l'Insecte, UMR 7261, CNRS/Université François-Rabelais de Tours, Parc Grandmont, 37200 Tours, France
| | - Graham N Stone
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, United Kingdom
| | - Mélanie Body
- Division of Plant Sciences, Christopher S. Bond Life Sciences Center, 1201 Rollins Street, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, United States
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