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Weng J, Wang H, Cheng D, Liu T, Zeng D, Dai C, Luo C. The Effects of DNA Methylation on Cytoplasmic Male Sterility in Sugar Beet. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1118. [PMID: 38256191 PMCID: PMC10817047 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25021118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
DNA methylation is widely found in higher plants and can control gene expression by regulation without changing the DNA sequence. In this study, the whole-genome methylation map of sugar beet was constructed by WGBS (whole-genome bisulfite sequencing) technology, and the results of WGBS were verified by bisulfite transformation, indicating that the results of WGBS technology were reliable. In addition, 12 differential methylation genes (DMGs) were identified, which were related to carbohydrate and energy metabolism, pollen wall development, and endogenous hormone regulation. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) showed that 75% of DMG expression levels showed negative feedback with methylation level, indicating that DNA methylation can affect gene expression to a certain extent. In addition, we found hypermethylation inhibited gene expression, which laid a foundation for further study on the molecular mechanism of DNA methylation at the epigenetic level in sugar beet male sterility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiamin Weng
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China; (J.W.); (H.W.); (T.L.); (C.L.)
| | - Hui Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China; (J.W.); (H.W.); (T.L.); (C.L.)
| | - Dayou Cheng
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China; (J.W.); (H.W.); (T.L.); (C.L.)
| | - Tianjiao Liu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China; (J.W.); (H.W.); (T.L.); (C.L.)
| | - Deyong Zeng
- School of Medicine and Health, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China; (D.Z.); (C.D.)
| | - Cuihong Dai
- School of Medicine and Health, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China; (D.Z.); (C.D.)
| | - Chengfei Luo
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China; (J.W.); (H.W.); (T.L.); (C.L.)
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Hewitt SK, Duangrattanalert K, Burgis T, Zeef LAH, Naseeb S, Delneri D. Plasticity of Mitochondrial DNA Inheritance and its Impact on Nuclear Gene Transcription in Yeast Hybrids. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8040494. [PMID: 32244414 PMCID: PMC7232527 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8040494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in yeast is biparentally inherited, but colonies rapidly lose one type of parental mtDNA, thus becoming homoplasmic. Therefore, hybrids between the yeast species possess two homologous nuclear genomes, but only one type of mitochondrial DNA. We hypothesise that the choice of mtDNA retention is influenced by its contribution to hybrid fitness in different environments, and the allelic expression of the two nuclear sub-genomes is affected by the presence of different mtDNAs in hybrids. Saccharomyces cerevisiae/S. uvarum hybrids preferentially retained S. uvarum mtDNA when formed on rich media at colder temperatures, while S. cerevisiae mtDNA was primarily retained on non-fermentable carbon source, at any temperature. Transcriptome data for hybrids harbouring different mtDNA showed a strong environmentally dependent allele preference, which was more important in respiratory conditions. Co-expression analysis for specific biological functions revealed a clear pattern of concerted allelic transcription within the same allele type, which supports the notion that the hybrid cell works preferentially with one set of parental alleles (or the other) for different cellular functions. Given that the type of mtDNA retained in hybrids affects both nuclear expression and fitness, it might play a role in driving hybrid genome evolution in terms of gene retention and loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah K Hewitt
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
- Division of Evolution and Genomic Science, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Kobchai Duangrattanalert
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
- Division of Evolution and Genomic Science, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Tim Burgis
- Division of Evolution and Genomic Science, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Leo A H Zeef
- Division of Evolution and Genomic Science, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Samina Naseeb
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
- Division of Evolution and Genomic Science, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Daniela Delneri
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
- Division of Evolution and Genomic Science, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
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3
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Drosophila Interspecific Hybridization Causes A Deregulation of the piRNA Pathway Genes. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:genes11020215. [PMID: 32092860 PMCID: PMC7073935 DOI: 10.3390/genes11020215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Almost all eukaryotes have transposable elements (TEs) against which they have developed defense mechanisms. In the Drosophila germline, the main transposable element (TE) regulation pathway is mediated by specific Piwi-interacting small RNAs (piRNAs). Nonetheless, for unknown reasons, TEs sometimes escape cellular control during interspecific hybridization processes. Because the piRNA pathway genes are involved in piRNA biogenesis and TE control, we sequenced and characterized nine key genes from this pathway in Drosophila buzzatii and Drosophila koepferae species and studied their expression pattern in ovaries of both species and their F1 hybrids. We found that gene structure is, in general, maintained between both species and that two genes—armitage and aubergine—are under positive selection. Three genes—krimper, methyltransferase 2, and zucchini—displayed higher expression values in hybrids than both parental species, while others had RNA levels similar to the parental species with the highest expression. This suggests that the overexpression of some piRNA pathway genes can be a primary response to hybrid stress. Therefore, these results reinforce the hypothesis that TE deregulation may be due to the protein incompatibility caused by the rapid evolution of these genes, leading to a TE silencing failure, rather than to an underexpression of piRNA pathway genes.
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Mai D, Nalley MJ, Bachtrog D. Patterns of Genomic Differentiation in the Drosophila nasuta Species Complex. Mol Biol Evol 2020; 37:208-220. [PMID: 31556453 PMCID: PMC6984368 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msz215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The Drosophila nasuta species complex contains over a dozen recently diverged species that are distributed widely across South-East Asia, and which shows varying degrees of pre- and postzygotic isolation. Here, we assemble a high-quality genome for D. albomicans using single-molecule sequencing and chromatin conformation capture, and draft genomes for 11 additional species and 67 individuals across the clade, to infer the species phylogeny and patterns of genetic diversity in this group. Our assembly recovers entire chromosomes, and we date the origin of this radiation ∼2 Ma. Despite low levels of overall differentiation, most species or subspecies show clear clustering into their designated taxonomic groups using population genetics and phylogenetic methods. Local evolutionary history is heterogeneous across the genome, and differs between the autosomes and the X chromosome for species in the sulfurigaster subgroup, likely due to autosomal introgression. Our study establishes the nasuta species complex as a promising model system to further characterize the evolution of pre- and postzygotic isolation in this clade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dat Mai
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA
| | - Matthew J Nalley
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA
| | - Doris Bachtrog
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA
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Behling AH, Shepherd LD, Cox MP. The importance and prevalence of allopolyploidy in Aotearoa New Zealand. J R Soc N Z 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/03036758.2019.1676797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anna H. Behling
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Lara D. Shepherd
- Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Murray P. Cox
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
- Bio-Protection Research Centre, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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Shao GM, Li XY, Wang Y, Wang ZW, Li Z, Zhang XJ, Zhou L, Gui JF. Whole Genome Incorporation and Epigenetic Stability in a Newly Synthetic Allopolyploid of Gynogenetic Gibel Carp. Genome Biol Evol 2018; 10:2394-2407. [PMID: 30085110 PMCID: PMC6143163 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evy165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Allopolyploidization plays an important role in speciation, and some natural or synthetic allopolyploid fishes have been extensively applied to aquaculture. Although genetic and epigenetic inheritance and variation associated with plant allopolyploids have been well documented, the relative research in allopolyploid animals is scarce. In this study, the genome constitution and DNA methylation inheritance in a newly synthetic allopolyploid of gynogenetic gibel carp were analyzed. The incorporation of a whole genome of paternal common carp sperm in the allopolyploid was confirmed by genomic in situ hybridization, chromosome localization of 45S rDNAs, and sequence comparison. Pooled sample-based methylation sensitive amplified polymorphism (MSAP) revealed that an overwhelming majority (98.82%) of cytosine methylation patterns in the allopolyploid were inherited from its parents of hexaploid gibel carp clone D and common carp. Compared to its parents, 11 DNA fragments in the allopolyploid were proved to be caused by interindividual variation, recombination, deletion, and mutation through individual sample-based MSAP and sequencing. Contrast to the rapid and remarkable epigenetic changes in most of analyzed neopolyploids, no cytosine methylation variation was detected in the gynogenetic allopolyploid. Therefore, the newly synthetic allopolyploid of gynogenetic gibel carp combined genomes from its parents and maintained genetic and epigenetic stability after its formation and subsequently seven successive gynogenetic generations. Our current results provide a paradigm for recurrent polyploidy consequences in the gynogenetic allopolyploid animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Ming Shao
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xi-Yin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhong-Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiao-Juan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Li Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jian-Fang Gui
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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Zhang M, Liu XK, Fan W, Yan DF, Zhong NS, Gao JY, Zhang WJ. Transcriptome analysis reveals hybridization-induced genome shock in an interspecific F 1 hybrid from Camellia. Genome 2018; 61:477-485. [PMID: 29718690 DOI: 10.1139/gen-2017-0105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The combination of two divergent genomes during hybridization can result in "genome shock". Although genome shock has been reported in the hybrids of some herbaceous plants, the pattern and the principle it follows are far from understood, especially in woody plants. Here, the gene expression patterns were remodeled in the F1 hybrid from the crossing of Camellia azalea × Camellia amplexicaulis compared with the parents as revealed by RNA-seq. About 54.5% of all unigenes were differentially expressed between the F1 hybrid and at least one of the parents, including 6404 unigenes with the highest expression level in the F1 hybrid. A series of genes, related to flower development, essential for RNA-directed DNA methylation and histone methylation, as well as 223 transposable elements, were enriched; and most of them exhibited a higher level of expression in the F1 hybrid. These results indicated that the genome shock induced by interspecific hybridization in Camellia could indeed result in changes of gene expression patterns, potentially through regulating DNA methylation and histone methylation which may be helpful for the maintaining of genome stability and even related to the unique phenotype of the F1 hybrid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhang
- a Institute of Biodiversity Science, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Xin-Kai Liu
- b Palm Eco-Town Development Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, Guangdong 510627, China
| | - Wen Fan
- a Institute of Biodiversity Science, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Dan-Feng Yan
- b Palm Eco-Town Development Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, Guangdong 510627, China
| | - Nai-Sheng Zhong
- b Palm Eco-Town Development Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, Guangdong 510627, China
| | - Ji-Yin Gao
- b Palm Eco-Town Development Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, Guangdong 510627, China.,c Research Institute of Subtropical Forest, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Fuyang, Zhejiang 311400, China
| | - Wen-Ju Zhang
- a Institute of Biodiversity Science, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
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Sun S, Wu Y, Lin X, Wang J, Yu J, Sun Y, Miao Y, Li Q, Sanguinet KA, Liu B. Hybrid weakness in a rice interspecific hybrid is nitrogen-dependent, and accompanied by changes in gene expression at both total transcript level and parental allele partitioning. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0172919. [PMID: 28248994 PMCID: PMC5332110 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0172919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Hybrid weakness, a phenomenon opposite to heterosis, refers to inferior growth and development in a hybrid relative to its pure-line parents. Little attention has been paid to the phenomenological or mechanistic aspect of hybrid weakness, probably due to its rare occurrence. Methodology/Principal findings Here, using a set of interspecific triploid F1 hybrids between Oryza sativa, ssp. japonica (genome AA) and a tetraploid wild rice species, O. alta (genome, CCDD), we investigated the phenotypic and physiological differences between the F1 hybrids and their parents under normal and nitrogen-limiting conditions. We quantified the expression levels of 21 key genes involved in three important pathways pertinent to the assayed phenotypic and physiological traits by real-time qRT-PCR. Further, we assayed expression partitioning of parental alleles for eight genes in the F1 hybrids relative to the in silico “hybrids” (parental cDNA mixture) under both normal and N-limiting conditions by using locus-specific cDNA pyrosequencing. Conclusions/Significance We report that the F1 hybrids showed weakness in several phenotypic traits at the final seedling-stage compared with their corresponding mid-parent values (MPVs). Nine of the 21 studied genes showed contrasted expression levels between hybrids and parents (MPVs) under normal vs. N-limiting conditions. Interestingly, under N-limiting conditions, the overtly enhanced partitioning of maternal allele expression in the hybrids for eight assayed genes echo their attenuated hybrid weakness in phenotypes, an observation further bolstered by more resemblance of hybrids to the maternal parent under N-limiting conditions compared to normal conditions in a suite of measured physiological traits. Our observations suggest that both overall expression level and differential partitioning of parental alleles of critical genes contribute to condition-specific hybrid weakness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Sun
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of the Ministry of Education (MOE), Northeast Normal University, Changchun China
| | - Ying Wu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of the Ministry of Education (MOE), Northeast Normal University, Changchun China
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Xiuyun Lin
- Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun China
| | - Jie Wang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of the Ministry of Education (MOE), Northeast Normal University, Changchun China
| | - Jiamiao Yu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of the Ministry of Education (MOE), Northeast Normal University, Changchun China
| | - Yue Sun
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of the Ministry of Education (MOE), Northeast Normal University, Changchun China
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Yiling Miao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of the Ministry of Education (MOE), Northeast Normal University, Changchun China
| | - Qiuping Li
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of the Ministry of Education (MOE), Northeast Normal University, Changchun China
| | - Karen A. Sanguinet
- Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail: (KS); (BL)
| | - Bao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Epigenetics of the Ministry of Education (MOE), Northeast Normal University, Changchun China
- * E-mail: (KS); (BL)
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Zhuang Y, Tripp EA. Genome-scale transcriptional study of hybrid effects and regulatory divergence in an F 1 hybrid Ruellia (Wild Petunias: Acanthaceae) and its parents. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2017; 17:15. [PMID: 28095782 PMCID: PMC5240417 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-016-0962-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND New combinations of divergent genomes can give rise to novel genetic functions in resulting hybrid progeny. Such functions may yield opportunities for ecological divergence, contributing ultimately to reproductive isolation and evolutionary longevity of nascent hybrid lineages. In plants, the degree to which transgressive genotypes contribute to floral novelty remains a question of key interest. Here, we generated an F1 hybrid plant between the red-flowered Ruellia elegans and yellow flowered R. speciosa. RNA-seq technology was used to explore differential gene expression between the hybrid and its two parents, with emphasis on genetic elements involved in the production of floral anthocyanin pigments. RESULTS The hybrid was purple flowered and produced novel floral delphinidin pigments not manufactured by either parent. We found that nearly a fifth of all 86,475 unigenes expressed were unique to the hybrid. The majority of hybrid unigenes (80.97%) showed a pattern of complete dominance to one parent or the other although this ratio was uneven, suggesting asymmetrical influence of parental genomes on the progeny transcriptome. However, 8.87% of all transcripts within the hybrid were expressed at significantly higher or lower mean levels than observed for either parent. A total of 28 unigenes coding putatively for eight core enzymes in the anthocyanin pathway were recovered, along with three candidate MYBs involved in anthocyanin regulation. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that models of gene evolution that explain phenotypic novelty and hybrid establishment in plants may need to include transgressive effects. Additionally, our results lend insight into the potential for floral novelty that derives from unions of divergent genomes. These findings serve as a starting point to further investigate molecular mechanisms involved in flower color transitions in Ruellia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongbin Zhuang
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, UCB 334, Boulder, CO 80309 USA
- Museum of Natural History, University of Colorado, UCB 350, Boulder, CO 80309 USA
| | - Erin A. Tripp
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, UCB 334, Boulder, CO 80309 USA
- Museum of Natural History, University of Colorado, UCB 350, Boulder, CO 80309 USA
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Epigenetic Inheritance and Its Role in Evolutionary Biology: Re-Evaluation and New Perspectives. BIOLOGY 2016; 5:biology5020024. [PMID: 27231949 PMCID: PMC4929538 DOI: 10.3390/biology5020024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2016] [Revised: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Epigenetics increasingly occupies a pivotal position in our understanding of inheritance, natural selection and, perhaps, even evolution. A survey of the PubMed database, however, reveals that the great majority (>93%) of epigenetic papers have an intra-, rather than an inter-generational focus, primarily on mechanisms and disease. Approximately ~1% of epigenetic papers even mention the nexus of epigenetics, natural selection and evolution. Yet, when environments are dynamic (e.g., climate change effects), there may be an “epigenetic advantage” to phenotypic switching by epigenetic inheritance, rather than by gene mutation. An epigenetically-inherited trait can arise simultaneously in many individuals, as opposed to a single individual with a gene mutation. Moreover, a transient epigenetically-modified phenotype can be quickly “sunsetted”, with individuals reverting to the original phenotype. Thus, epigenetic phenotype switching is dynamic and temporary and can help bridge periods of environmental stress. Epigenetic inheritance likely contributes to evolution both directly and indirectly. While there is as yet incomplete evidence of direct permanent incorporation of a complex epigenetic phenotype into the genome, doubtlessly, the presence of epigenetic markers and the phenotypes they create (which may sort quite separately from the genotype within a population) will influence natural selection and, so, drive the collective genotype of a population.
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