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Pahl CC, Ruedas LA. Big boned: How fat storage and other adaptations influenced large theropod foraging ecology. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0290459. [PMID: 37910492 PMCID: PMC10619836 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0290459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Dinosaur foraging ecology has been the subject of scientific interest for decades, yet much of what we understand about it remains hypothetical. We wrote an agent-based model (ABM) to simulate meat energy sources present in dinosaur environments, including carcasses of giant sauropods, along with living, huntable prey. Theropod dinosaurs modeled in this environment (specifically allosauroids, and more particularly, Allosaurus Marsh, 1877) were instantiated with heritable traits favorable to either hunting success or scavenging success. If hunter phenotypes were more reproductively successful, their traits were propagated into the population through their offspring, resulting in predator specialists. If selective pressure favored scavenger phenotypes, the population would evolve to acquire most of their calories from carrion. Data generated from this model strongly suggest that theropods in sauropod-dominated systems evolved to detect carcasses, consume and store large quantities of fat, and dominate carcass sites. Broadly speaking, selective forces did not favor predatory adaptations, because sauropod carrion resource pools, as we modeled them, were too profitable for prey-based resource pools to be significant. This is the first research to test selective pressure patterns in dinosaurs, and the first to estimate theropod mass based on metabolic constraints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cameron C. Pahl
- Department of Biology and Museum of Vertebrate Biology, Science Research and Teaching Center—246, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Luis A. Ruedas
- Department of Biology and Museum of Vertebrate Biology, Science Research and Teaching Center—246, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon, United States of America
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2
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Isberg SR. How many fathers? Study design implications when inferring multiple paternity in crocodilians. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e9379. [PMID: 36225824 PMCID: PMC9534745 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Up to 10 males were reported to sire clutches of crocodilian eggs but review of the underlying study designs raised questions of potential upward bias of inferred sire numbers. To test this premise, different scenarios were explored using a published dataset of 16 known single-sire saltwater crocodile pairs and their offspring which were originally confirmed using a 11 loci microsatellite panel in CERVUS. Varying the number of microsatellites, omitting one or both parental genotypes and using different parentage analysis techniques revealed that total allele number, rather than number of loci, determined inferred sire accuracy in two opposing ways. Using the single-locus minimum method and GERUD, which both require prior knowledge of family groupings (i.e., nests), fewer alleles (and loci) accurately inferred only one father. In contrast, CERVUS and COLONY required all 11 loci (65 alleles) and both parental genotypes to (a) assign correct family groups and (b) infer the correct sire number, except in one family where two sires were equally assigned based on their number of homozygous loci. When less genotype information was provided, CERVUS and COLONY inferred up to six and seven sires, respectively. Given this data is from confirmed single-sire matings, and yet up to seven sires could be inferred, the significance of inappropriate study design is clearly demonstrated. Consideration should be carefully given to genotype data, particularly those collected specifically for population diversity studies, which are also used to infer multiple paternity because the underlying data collection assumptions are not equivalent between the two outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally R. Isberg
- Centre for Crocodile ResearchNoonamahNorthern TerritoryAustralia
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3
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Do female amphibians and reptiles have greater reproductive output if they have more mates? Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-022-03194-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
In general, males mate with multiple females to increase individual reproductive success. Whether or not, and under what circumstances, females benefit from multiple mating has been less clear. Our review of 154 studies covering 184 populations of amphibians and reptiles showed that polyandry was widespread and variable among and within taxonomic groups. We investigated whether amphibian and reptile females had greater reproductive output as the number of sires for offspring increased. Meta-analysis revealed significant heterogeneity in the dataset of all taxa. Expected heterozygosity was a significant moderator (covariate) of positive relationships between female reproductive output and the number of sires, but a sensitivity test showed the result was tenuous. Significant heterogeneity remained despite controlling for expected heterozygosity and other variables but was resolved for most taxonomic groups with subgroup meta-analyses. Subgroup meta-analyses showed that only female salamanders (Caudata) had significantly greater reproductive output with an increased number of sires. For many species of Caudata, males cannot coerce females into accepting spermatophores. We therefore suggest that if females control the number of matings, they can use polyandry to increase their fitness. Caudata offers ideal models with which to test this hypothesis and to explore factors enabling and maintaining the evolution of female choice. Outstanding problems may be addressed by expanding taxonomic coverage and data collection and improving data reporting.
Significance Statement
Many factors and combinations of factors drive polyandry. Whether or not females benefit from mating with more than one male remains equivocal. Focusing on amphibians and reptiles, our analyses demonstrate that female salamanders produced more offspring when mated with multiple males, whereas this was not the case for reptiles. Unlike many other species in our dataset, the polyandrous female salamanders fully control sperm intake and have chosen to mate multiple times. We further highlight problems and key directions for future research in the field.
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4
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Moore BC, Brennan PLR, Francis R, Penland S, Shiavone K, Wayne K, Woodward AR, Does MD, Kim DK, Kelly DA. Glans inflation morphology and female cloaca copulatory interactions of the male American alligator phallus†. Biol Reprod 2020; 104:374-386. [PMID: 33112370 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioaa197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The phallic glans of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is the distal termination of the semen-conducting sulcus spermaticus and during copulation has the closest, most intimate mechanical interactions with the female urodeum, the middle cloacal chamber that contains the opening to the vaginal passages and oviducts. However, the details of this interface leading to insemination and gamete uptake are unclear. Here, we: (1) histologically characterize the underlying tissue types and morphologically quantify the shape changes associated with glans inflation into the copulatory conformation, (2) digitally reconstruct from MRI the 3D shape of functional tissue compartments, and (3) diffusible iodine-based contrast-enhanced computed tomography image the copulatory fit between male phallus and female cloaca. We discuss these results in relation to tissue type material properties, the transfer on intromittent forces, establishing potential copulatory lock, inflated glans volume scaling with body mass/length, the mechanics of semen targeting and insemination, and potential female cryptic choice impacting multiple clutch paternity. In part, this study further clarifies the phallic morphological variation observed among crocodylians and begins to investigate the role(s) these divergent male forms play during copulation interacting with female cloacal forms to increase reproductive success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon C Moore
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Biomedical Science, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA.,Biology Department, Sewanee: The University of the South, Sewanee, TN, USA
| | | | - Rachel Francis
- Biology Department, Sewanee: The University of the South, Sewanee, TN, USA
| | - Samuel Penland
- Biology Department, Sewanee: The University of the South, Sewanee, TN, USA
| | - Kelsie Shiavone
- Biology Department, Sewanee: The University of the South, Sewanee, TN, USA
| | - Kathryn Wayne
- Biology Department, Sewanee: The University of the South, Sewanee, TN, USA
| | - Allan R Woodward
- Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Mark D Does
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Dong Kyu Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Diane A Kelly
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst MA, USA
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5
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The effectiveness of microsatellite DNA as a genetic tool in crocodilian conservation. CONSERV GENET RESOUR 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12686-020-01164-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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6
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Moore BC, Fitri WN, Augustine L. Crocodylian conservation and evolution insights from an anatomical and histological examination of phalli from male false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii). Anat Histol Embryol 2020; 49:390-401. [PMID: 32154618 DOI: 10.1111/ahe.12542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 01/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
As wild population threats for the endangered false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii) persist, conservation breeding programs, including developing semen collection techniques for subsequent artificial insemination, are becoming important species conservation measures. Developing reproductive biology understanding of a species is important to developing best practices and hopefully maximizing reproductive successes. However, information on crocodylians functional copulatory anatomy in general is lacking. To that end, zoological facilities and conservation centres have the exceptional opportunity to contribute new understandings that may not otherwise be attainable regarding crocodylian reproductive anatomy, particularly during routine physical examinations or post-mortem necropsies. Therefore, to better understand T. schlegelii reproductive biology, to contribute knowledge in support of zoo breeding conservation efforts and to contribute to what is known overall about crocodylian reproduction, we investigated phallic anatomy of adult male Tomistoma from two zoological populations, the St. Louis Zoo, USA and Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. Here, we present the gross anatomical features and histological analysis of underlying tissue-level details in pursuit of a better understanding of copulatory function and associated gamete transfer mechanisms. While much of the overall Tomistoma phallic morphology and inferred function corresponds to that of other crocodylian species and speaks to conserved aspects of functional anatomy across taxa, species-specific aspects of glans and glans tip morphology are also identified. These novelties are discussed in a general function and overall broader evolutionary contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon C Moore
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA.,Sewanee: The University of the South, Sewanee, TN, USA
| | - Wan-Nor Fitri
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia.,Research Centre for Wildlife, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Lauren Augustine
- Curator of Herpetology, Saint Louis Zoo, Saint Louis, MO, USA.,Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Washington, DC, USA
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Zajdel J, Lance SL, Rainwater TR, Wilkinson PM, Hale MD, Parrott BB. Mating dynamics and multiple paternity in a long-lived vertebrate. Ecol Evol 2019; 9:10109-10121. [PMID: 31632641 PMCID: PMC6787947 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple paternity is relatively common across diverse taxa; however, the drivers and implications related to paternal and maternal fitness are not well understood. Several hypotheses have been offered to explain the occurrence and frequency of multiple paternity. One set of hypotheses seeks to explain multiple paternity through direct and indirect benefits including increased genetic diversity or enhanced offspring fitness, whereas another set of hypotheses explains multiple paternity as a by-product of sexual conflict and population-specific parameters such as density. Here, we investigate mating system dynamics in a historically studied population of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) in coastal South Carolina. We examine parentage in 151 nests across 6 years and find that 43% of nests were sired by multiple males and that male reproductive success is strongly influenced by male size. Whereas clutch size and hatchling size did not differ between singly sired and multiply sired nests, fertility rates were observed to be lower in multiply sired clutches. Our findings suggest that multiple paternity may exert cost in regard to female fitness, and raise the possibility that sexual conflict might influence the frequency of multiple paternity in wild alligator populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Zajdel
- Odum School of EcologyUniversity of GeorgiaAthensGAUSA
- Savannah River Ecology LaboratoryAikenSCUSA
| | | | - Thomas R. Rainwater
- Tom Yawkey Wildlife Center & Belle W. Baruch Institute of Coastal Ecology and Forest ScienceClemson UniversityGeorgetownSCUSA
| | | | - Matthew D. Hale
- Odum School of EcologyUniversity of GeorgiaAthensGAUSA
- Savannah River Ecology LaboratoryAikenSCUSA
| | - Benjamin B. Parrott
- Odum School of EcologyUniversity of GeorgiaAthensGAUSA
- Savannah River Ecology LaboratoryAikenSCUSA
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8
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Gong S, Hua L, Ge Y, Cao D. Unique multiple paternity in the endangered big-headed turtle ( Platysternon megacephalum) in an ex situ population in South China. Ecol Evol 2019; 9:9869-9877. [PMID: 31534700 PMCID: PMC6745651 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 06/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the mating system and reproductive strategies of an endangered species is critical to the success of captive breeding. The big-headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum) is one of the most threatened turtle species in the world. Captive breeding and reintroduction are necessary to re-establish wild populations of P. megacephalum in some of its historical ranges in China, where the original populations have been extirpated. However, the captive breeding of P. megacephalum is very difficult and this may be due to its mysterious reproductive strategies and special behavior (e.g., aggressive temperament and territoriality). In this study, we achieved successful captive breeding of P. megacephalum by creating a habitat that mimics natural conditions and then investigated its mating system using microsatellite makers. A total of 16 clutches containing 79 eggs of P. megacephalum were collected, and 52 were hatched successfully over two breeding seasons. Of the 15 effective clutches, 6 clutches (40%) exhibited multiple paternity. There was no significant correlation between clutch size and multiple paternity, and no significant difference in hatching success between multiple-sired and single-sired clutches. However, there was significant correlation between male body size and the number of offspring, with higher-ranked males contributing to more clutches. Our results provide the first evidence of multiple paternity and male hierarchy in P. megacephalum. These findings suggest that multiple paternity and male hierarchy should be considered in captive breeding programs for P. megacephalum, and creating a habitat that mimics natural conditions is an effctive way to achieve successful captive breeding and investigate the mating systems of this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiping Gong
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource UtilizationGuangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and UtilizationGuangdong Institute of Applied Biological ResourcesGuangzhouChina
| | - Liushuai Hua
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource UtilizationGuangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and UtilizationGuangdong Institute of Applied Biological ResourcesGuangzhouChina
| | - Yan Ge
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource UtilizationGuangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and UtilizationGuangdong Institute of Applied Biological ResourcesGuangzhouChina
| | - Dainan Cao
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource UtilizationGuangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and UtilizationGuangdong Institute of Applied Biological ResourcesGuangzhouChina
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9
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10
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Eme J, Cooper CJ, Alvo A, Vasquez J, Muhtaseb S, Rayman S, Schmoyer T, Elsey RM. Scaling of major organs in hatchling female American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis
). JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART 2018; 331:38-51. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.2236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- John Eme
- Department of Biological Sciences; California State University San Marcos; San Marcos California
| | - Cassidy J. Cooper
- Department of Biological Sciences; California State University San Marcos; San Marcos California
| | - Andrew Alvo
- Department of Biological Sciences; California State University San Marcos; San Marcos California
| | - Juan Vasquez
- Department of Biological Sciences; California State University San Marcos; San Marcos California
| | - Sara Muhtaseb
- Department of Biological Sciences; California State University San Marcos; San Marcos California
| | - Susan Rayman
- Department of Biological Sciences; California State University San Marcos; San Marcos California
| | - Thomas Schmoyer
- Department of Biological Sciences; California State University San Marcos; San Marcos California
| | - Ruth M. Elsey
- Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge; Grand Chenier Louisiana
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11
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Wang H, Yan P, Zhang S, Sun L, Ren M, Xue H, Zhang F, Wu R, Wu X. Multiple paternity: A compensation mechanism of the Chinese alligator for inbreeding. Anim Reprod Sci 2017; 187:124-132. [PMID: 29103625 DOI: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2017.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Revised: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The Chinese alligator Alligator sinensis is a critically endangered species endemic to China. Knowledge about reproductive strategies of a species contributes to their conservation. Little is, however, known about the reproductive strategies and its impact on the population. In the present study, an easy and non-invasive genetic method was used to improve the understanding of mating system of Chinese alligators and its effect on the population genetic diversity by nine polymorphic microsatellite loci. There was a high incidence of multiple paternity among 50 clutches, with a total 60% of the clutches having multiple paternity and up to three males contributing to single clutches. In addition, polyandry females choose to mate with males that are more distant in relatedness compared with monogamy females. Multiple paternity can decrease the inbreeding coefficient, while there is no significant difference between single and multiple paternity (P>0.05). Furthermore, there was an increased allelic diversity (though not heterozygosity) in multiple paternity sired offspring compared with the single paternity sired offspring in F2 generations (P<0.05), as predicted by the genetic diversity hypothesis. Multiple paternity may function as an important inbreeding avoidance compensation mechanism leading to the potential of the species to avoid extinction. These findings will not only enhance the understanding of the mating system and the biological traits of the Chinese alligator, but also improve the captive breeding program management and conservation strategies of the endangered species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Wang
- Key Laboratory for Conservation and Use of Important Biological Resources of Anhui Province, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui 241000, China
| | - Peng Yan
- Key Laboratory for Conservation and Use of Important Biological Resources of Anhui Province, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui 241000, China
| | - Shengzhou Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Conservation and Use of Important Biological Resources of Anhui Province, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui 241000, China
| | - Long Sun
- Key Laboratory for Conservation and Use of Important Biological Resources of Anhui Province, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui 241000, China
| | - Min Ren
- Key Laboratory for Conservation and Use of Important Biological Resources of Anhui Province, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui 241000, China
| | - Hui Xue
- Key Laboratory for Conservation and Use of Important Biological Resources of Anhui Province, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui 241000, China
| | - Fang Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Conservation and Use of Important Biological Resources of Anhui Province, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui 241000, China
| | - Rong Wu
- Alligator Research Center of Anhui Province, Xuanzhou 242000, China
| | - Xiaobing Wu
- Key Laboratory for Conservation and Use of Important Biological Resources of Anhui Province, College of Life Sciences, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui 241000, China.
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12
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Milián-García Y, Jensen EL, Mena SR, Pérez Fleitas E, Sosa Rodríguez G, Guerra Manchena L, Espinosa López G, Russello MA. Genetic evidence for multiple paternity in the critically endangered Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer). AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA 2016. [DOI: 10.1163/15685381-00003056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Conservation strategies can be most effective when factors influencing the persistence of populations are well-understood, including aspects of reproductive biology such as mating system. Crocodylians have been traditionally associated with a polygynous mating system, with genetic studies revealing multiple paternity of clutches in several species. The endemic Cuban crocodile,Crocodylus rhombifer, is currently listed as Critically Endangered, and is one of the least understood crocodylian species in terms of its mating behavior. Here, we tested a hypothesis of multiple paternity in the Cuban crocodile by collecting genotypic data at nine microsatellite loci for 102 hatchlings from five nests sampled at the Zapata Swamp captive breeding facility and analyzing them in relation to data previously collected for 137 putative parents. All five nests showed evidence of multiple paternity based on the numbers of alleles per locus, with sibship analyses reconstructing all nests as having four to six full-sib family groups. Accordingly, mean pairwise relatedness values per nest ranged from 0.21 to 0.39, largely intermediate between theoretical expected values for half-siblings (0.25) and full-siblings (0.50). It is not possible to differentiate whether the multiple paternity of a nest was due to multiple matings during the same breeding season, or a result of sperm storage. Our results reveal that theC. rhombifermating system is likely best characterized as promiscuous and suggest that the standard practice of enforcing a 1:2 sex ratio at the captive breeding facility should be altered in order to better maintain a demographically and genetically healthy ex situ population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoamel Milián-García
- Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana, calle 25 # 455, e/J e I, Plaza Vedado, 10400 La Habana, Cuba
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, V1V 1V7, British Columbia, Canada
- Centro de Investigaciones Marinas, Universidad de La Habana, calle 16 #114, e/1 y 3, Miramar, Playa, 11300 La Habana, Cuba
| | - Evelyn L. Jensen
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, V1V 1V7, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Sheila Ribalta Mena
- Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana, calle 25 # 455, e/J e I, Plaza Vedado, 10400 La Habana, Cuba
| | - Etiam Pérez Fleitas
- Empresa Nacional para la Protección de la Flora y la Fauna, calle 42 y 514 Esq.7 Ave, Miramar, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Gustavo Sosa Rodríguez
- Empresa Nacional para la Protección de la Flora y la Fauna, calle 42 y 514 Esq.7 Ave, Miramar, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Leiter Guerra Manchena
- Empresa Nacional para la Protección de la Flora y la Fauna, calle 42 y 514 Esq.7 Ave, Miramar, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Georgina Espinosa López
- Facultad de Biología, Universidad de La Habana, calle 25 # 455, e/J e I, Plaza Vedado, 10400 La Habana, Cuba
| | - Michael A. Russello
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, V1V 1V7, British Columbia, Canada
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