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Luo X, He X, Zhang X, Zhao X, Zhang Y, Shi Y, Hua S. Hepatocellular carcinoma: signaling pathways, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy. MedComm (Beijing) 2024; 5:e474. [PMID: 38318160 PMCID: PMC10838672 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 12/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver cancer with a high mortality rate. It is regarded as a significant public health issue because of its complicated pathophysiology, high metastasis, and recurrence rates. There are no obvious symptoms in the early stage of HCC, which often leads to delays in diagnosis. Traditional treatment methods such as surgical resection, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and interventional therapies have limited therapeutic effects for HCC patients with recurrence or metastasis. With the development of molecular biology and immunology, molecular signaling pathways and immune checkpoint were identified as the main mechanism of HCC progression. Targeting these molecules has become a new direction for the treatment of HCC. At present, the combination of targeted drugs and immune checkpoint inhibitors is the first choice for advanced HCC patients. In this review, we mainly focus on the cutting-edge research of signaling pathways and corresponding targeted therapy and immunotherapy in HCC. It is of great significance to comprehensively understand the pathogenesis of HCC, search for potential therapeutic targets, and optimize the treatment strategies of HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoting Luo
- Department of Radiation OncologyZhuhai People's HospitalZhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan UniversityZhuhaiChina
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tumor Interventional Diagnosis and TreatmentZhuhai People's HospitalZhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan UniversityZhuhaiChina
| | - Xin He
- Department of Radiation OncologyZhuhai People's HospitalZhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan UniversityZhuhaiChina
| | - Xingmei Zhang
- Department of NeurobiologySchool of Basic Medical SciencesSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Xiaohui Zhao
- Department of Radiation OncologyZhuhai People's HospitalZhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan UniversityZhuhaiChina
| | - Yuzhe Zhang
- Department of Radiation OncologyZhuhai People's HospitalZhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan UniversityZhuhaiChina
| | - Yusheng Shi
- Department of Radiation OncologyZhuhai People's HospitalZhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan UniversityZhuhaiChina
| | - Shengni Hua
- Department of Radiation OncologyZhuhai People's HospitalZhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan UniversityZhuhaiChina
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2
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Yamaguchi M. Regucalcin Is a Potential Regulator in Human Cancer: Aiming to Expand into Cancer Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:5489. [PMID: 38001749 PMCID: PMC10670417 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15225489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Regucalcin, a calcium-binding protein lacking the EF-hand motif, was initially discovered in 1978. Its name is indicative of its function in calcium signaling regulation. The rgn gene encodes for regucalcin and is situated on the X chromosome in both humans and vertebrates. Regucalcin regulates pivotal enzymes involved in signal transduction and has an inhibitory function, which includes protein kinases, protein phosphatases, cysteinyl protease, nitric oxide dynthetase, aminoacyl-transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) synthetase, and protein synthesis. This cytoplasmic protein is transported to the nucleus where it regulates deoxyribonucleic acid and RNA synthesis as well as gene expression. Overexpression of regucalcin inhibits proliferation in both normal and cancer cells in vitro, independent of apoptosis. During liver regeneration in vivo, endogenous regucalcin suppresses cell growth when overexpressed. Regucalcin mRNA and protein expressions are significantly downregulated in tumor tissues of patients with various types of cancers. Patients exhibiting upregulated regucalcin in tumor tissue have shown prolonged survival. The decrease of regucalcin expression is linked to the advancement of cancer. Overexpression of regucalcin carries the potential for preventing and treating carcinogenesis. Additionally, extracellular regucalcin has displayed control over various types of human cancer cells. Regucalcin may hold a prominent role as a regulatory factor in cancer development. Supplying the regucalcin gene could prove to be a valuable asset in cancer treatment. The therapeutic value of regucalcin suggests its potential significance in treating cancer patients. This review delves into the most recent research on the regulatory role of regucalcin in human cancer development, providing a novel approach for treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayoshi Yamaguchi
- Cancer Biology Program, University of Hawaii Cancer Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 701 Ilalo Street, Hawaii, HI 96813, USA
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3
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Biglari N, Soltani-Zangbar MS, Mohammadian J, Mehdizadeh A, Abbasi K. ctDNA as a novel and promising approach for cancer diagnosis: a focus on hepatocellular carcinoma. EXCLI JOURNAL 2023; 22:752-780. [PMID: 37720239 PMCID: PMC10502204 DOI: 10.17179/excli2023-6277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most prevalent forms of cancer worldwide. Therefore, it is essential to diagnose and treat HCC patients promptly. As a novel discovery, circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) can be used to analyze the tumor type and the cancer location. Additionally, ctDNA assists the cancer stage determination, which enables medical professionals to provide patients with the most appropriate treatment. This review will discuss the HCC-related mutated genes diagnosed by ctDNA. In addition, we will introduce the different and the most appropriate ctDNA diagnosis approaches based on the facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Negin Biglari
- Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Sadegh Soltani-Zangbar
- Connective Tissue Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Jamal Mohammadian
- School of Advanced Medical Science, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Amir Mehdizadeh
- Hematology and Oncology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Khadijeh Abbasi
- Department of Biochemistry and Clinical Laboratories, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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4
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Leung RWH, Lee TKW. Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling as a Driver of Stemness and Metabolic Reprogramming in Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14215468. [PMID: 36358885 PMCID: PMC9656505 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14215468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 10/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Aberrant Wnt/β-catenin signaling has been reported to play crucial role in pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In this review, we focus on the regulatory role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in cancer stemness and metabolic reprogramming, which are two emerging hallmarks of cancer. Understanding the role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in regulation of the above processes reveals novel therapeutic strategy against this deadly disease. Abstract Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major cause of cancer death worldwide due to its high rates of tumor recurrence and metastasis. Aberrant Wnt/β-catenin signaling has been shown to play a significant role in HCC development, progression and clinical impact on tumor behavior. Accumulating evidence has revealed the critical involvement of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in driving cancer stemness and metabolic reprogramming, which are regarded as emerging cancer hallmarks. In this review, we summarize the regulatory mechanism of Wnt/β-catenin signaling and its role in HCC. Furthermore, we provide an update on the regulatory roles of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in metabolic reprogramming, cancer stemness and drug resistance in HCC. We also provide an update on preclinical and clinical studies targeting Wnt/β-catenin signaling alone or in combination with current therapies for effective cancer therapy. This review provides insights into the current opportunities and challenges of targeting this signaling pathway in HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainbow Wing Hei Leung
- Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Terence Kin Wah Lee
- Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +852-3400-8799; Fax: +852-2364-9932
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Griffith DOL. Genomic and transcriptomic somatic alterations of hepatocellular carcinoma in non-cirrhotic livers. Cancer Genet 2022; 264-265:90-99. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cancergen.2022.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Deldar Abad Paskeh M, Mirzaei S, Ashrafizadeh M, Zarrabi A, Sethi G. Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling as a Driver of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Progression: An Emphasis on Molecular Pathways. J Hepatocell Carcinoma 2021; 8:1415-1444. [PMID: 34858888 PMCID: PMC8630469 DOI: 10.2147/jhc.s336858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver cancers cause a high rate of death worldwide and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is considered as the most common primary liver cancer. HCC remains a challenging disease to treat. Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is considered a tumor-promoting factor in various cancers; hence, the present review focused on the role of Wnt signaling in HCC, and its association with progression and therapy response based on pre-clinical and clinical evidence. The nuclear translocation of β-catenin enhances expression level of genes such as c-Myc and MMPs in increasing cancer progression. The mutation of CTNNB1 gene encoding β-catenin and its overexpression can lead to HCC progression. β-catenin signaling enhances cancer stem cell features of HCC and promotes their growth rate. Furthermore, β-catenin prevents apoptosis in HCC cells and increases their migration via triggering EMT and upregulating MMP levels. It is suggested that β-catenin signaling participates in mediating drug resistance and immuno-resistance in HCC. Upstream mediators including ncRNAs can regulate β-catenin signaling in HCC. Anti-cancer agents inhibit β-catenin signaling and mediate its proteasomal degradation in HCC therapy. Furthermore, clinical studies have revealed the role of β-catenin and its gene mutation (CTNBB1) in HCC progression. Based on these subjects, future experiments can focus on developing novel therapeutics targeting Wnt/β-catenin signaling in HCC therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahshid Deldar Abad Paskeh
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Advanced Science and Technology, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
- Farhikhtegan Medical Convergence Sciences Research Center, Farhikhtegan Hospital, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sepideh Mirzaei
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran, Iran
| | - Milad Ashrafizadeh
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sabanci University, Tuzla, Istanbul, Turkey
- Sabanci University Nanotechnology Research and Application Center (SUNUM), Tuzla, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ali Zarrabi
- Sabanci University Nanotechnology Research and Application Center (SUNUM), Tuzla, Istanbul, Turkey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Istinye University, Sariyer, Istanbul, 34396, Turkey
| | - Gautam Sethi
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- Cancer Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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7
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Coral GP, Branco F, Meurer R, Marcon PDS, Fontes PRO, Mattos AAD. RESULTS OF IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY IN THE DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS OF EARLY HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA AND NODULES WITH HIGH-GRADE DYSPLASIA IN PATIENTS WITH CIRRHOSIS. ARQUIVOS DE GASTROENTEROLOGIA 2021; 58:82-86. [PMID: 33909802 DOI: 10.1590/s0004-2803.202100000-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most frequent primary cancer of the liver and cirrhosis is considered a pre-malignant disease. In this context, the evolutionary sequence from low grade dysplastic nodule and high grade dysplastic nodule (HGDN) to early HCC and advanced HCC has been studied. The differential diagnosis between HGDN and early HCC is still a challenge, especially in needle biopsies. OBJECTIVE To evaluate an immunohistochemistry panel to differentiate dysplastic nodules and HCC. METHODS Patients with cirrhosis who underwent surgical resection or liver transplantation were included. The sensitivity, specificity and accuracy for the diagnosis of neoplasia were analyzed by evaluating five markers: heat shock protein 70, glypican 3, glutamine synthetase, clathrin heavy chain and beta-catenin. P≤0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS One hundred and fifty-six nodules were included; of these, 57 were HCC, 14 HGDN, 18 low grade dysplastic nodules and 67 regenerative macronodules. Sensitivity of HCC diagnosis was 64.9% for glypican 3 and 77.2% for glutamine syntetase, while specificity was 96.0% and 96.0% respectively. When the panel of four markers was considered (excluding beta catenin), the specificity ranged from 87.9% for one positive marker to 100% for at least three markers. The best accuracy for HCC diagnosis was obtained with at least two positive markers, which was associated with a sensitivity of 82.5% and specificity of 99%. CONCLUSION Differential diagnosis of dysplastic nodules and HCC by morphological criteria can be challenging. Immunomarkers are useful and should be used for the differential diagnosis between HCC and HGDN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Perdomo Coral
- Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Programa de Pós-Graduação em Medicina: Hepatologia, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil
| | - Fernanda Branco
- Irmandade da Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Porto Alegre, Departamento de Radiologia, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil
| | - Rosalva Meurer
- UFCSPA, Departamento de Patologia, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil
| | - Patrícia Dos Santos Marcon
- Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Programa de Pós-Graduação em Medicina: Hepatologia, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil.,Hospital Mãe de Deus, Departamento de Gastroenterologia, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil
| | - Paulo Roberto Ott Fontes
- Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Programa de Pós-Graduação em Medicina: Hepatologia, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil
| | - Angelo Alves de Mattos
- Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Programa de Pós-Graduação em Medicina: Hepatologia, Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil
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Tabibzadeh A, Tameshkel FS, Moradi Y, Soltani S, Moradi-Lakeh M, Ashrafi GH, Motamed N, Zamani F, Motevalian SA, Panahi M, Esghaei M, Ajdarkosh H, Mousavi-Jarrahi A, Niya MHK. Signal transduction pathway mutations in gastrointestinal (GI) cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep 2020; 10:18713. [PMID: 33127962 PMCID: PMC7599243 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-73770-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence of the signaling pathways mutation rate in the Gastrointestinal (GI) tract cancers in a systematic review and meta-analysis study. The study was performed based on the PRISMA criteria. Random models by confidence interval (CI: 95%) were used to calculate the pooled estimate of prevalence via Metaprop command. The pooled prevalence indices of signal transduction pathway mutations in gastric cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, and pancreatic cancer were 5% (95% CI: 3-8%), 12% (95% CI: 8-18%), 17% (95% CI: 14-20%), and 20% (95% CI: 5-41%), respectively. Also, the mutation rates for Wnt pathway and MAPK pathway were calculated to be 23% (95% CI, 14-33%) and 20% (95% CI, 17-24%), respectively. Moreover, the most popular genes were APC (in Wnt pathway), KRAS (in MAPK pathway) and PIK3CA (in PI3K pathway) in the colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, and gastric cancer while they were beta-catenin and CTNNB1 in liver cancer. The most altered pathway was Wnt pathway followed by the MAPK pathway. In addition, pancreatic cancer was found to be higher under the pressure of mutation compared with others based on pooled prevalence analysis. Finally, APC mutations in colorectal cancer, KRAS in gastric cancer, and pancreatic cancer were mostly associated gene alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Tabibzadeh
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fahimeh Safarnezhad Tameshkel
- Student Research Committee, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Yousef Moradi
- Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Research Institute for Health Development, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
| | - Saber Soltani
- Department of Virology, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maziar Moradi-Lakeh
- Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Preventive Medicine and Public Health Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - G Hossein Ashrafi
- Cancer Theme SEC Faculty, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, London, KT1 2EE, UK
| | - Nima Motamed
- Department of Social Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Farhad Zamani
- Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Abbas Motevalian
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahshid Panahi
- Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Esghaei
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Ajdarkosh
- Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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9
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Javanmard D, Karbalaie Niya MH, Khalafkhany D, Najafi M, Ziaee M, Babaei MR, Kiani SJ, Esghaei M, Jazayeri SM, Panahi M, Safarnezhad Tameshkel F, Mehrabi M, Monavari SH, Bokharaei-Salim F. Downregulation of GSK3β and Upregulation of URG7 in Hepatitis B-Related Hepatocellular Carcinoma. HEPATITIS MONTHLY 2020; 20. [DOI: 10.5812/hepatmon.100899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 08/30/2023]
Abstract
: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is the leading cause of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The exact molecular contributors to the development of HBV-related HCC are not yet completely understood. Recent studies demonstrated that the deregulation of the Wnt pathway is highly associated with the development of HCC. Besides, HBV is known to have roles in the deregulation of this pathway. The present study evaluated the molecular aspects of the Wnt pathway in HBV-related HCC in liver tissue samples. Viral characterization was done by identifying the HBx mutations and the assessment of intrahepatic viral load. The expression of Wnt pathway genes was assessed using real-time PCR and methylation-specific PCR. The intrahepatic viral load was significantly higher in tumor samples than in normal tissues (P = 0.0008). Aberrant expression was observed in Wnt-1, Wnt-7a, FZD2, FZD7, β-catenin, URG7, c-Myc, SFRP5, and GSK3β, among which Wnt1, FZD2, SFRP5, Gsk3β, and URG7 were associated with HBV. HBx mutations at positions I88, L116, and I127 + F132 were associated with the decreased expression of GSK3β and overexpression of URG7 and Wnt1. Alterations in the expression level of β-catenin, as well as some mutants of HBx, were correlated with the level of c-Myc. HBV-related HCC seems to be mostly coordinated with epigenetic behaviors of HBx, such a multi-functional peptide with suppressing/trans-activating functions.
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10
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Kalasekar SM, Kotiyal S, Conley C, Phan C, Young A, Evason KJ. Heterogeneous beta-catenin activation is sufficient to cause hepatocellular carcinoma in zebrafish. Biol Open 2019; 8:bio047829. [PMID: 31575545 PMCID: PMC6826293 DOI: 10.1242/bio.047829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Up to 41% of hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs) result from activating mutations in the CTNNB1 gene encoding β-catenin. HCC-associated CTNNB1 mutations stabilize the β-catenin protein, leading to nuclear and/or cytoplasmic localization of β-catenin and downstream activation of Wnt target genes. In patient HCC samples, β-catenin nuclear and cytoplasmic localization are typically patchy, even among HCC with highly active CTNNB1 mutations. The functional and clinical relevance of this heterogeneity in β-catenin activation are not well understood. To define mechanisms of β-catenin-driven HCC initiation, we generated a Cre-lox system that enabled switching on activated β-catenin in (1) a small number of hepatocytes in early development; or (2) the majority of hepatocytes in later development or adulthood. We discovered that switching on activated β-catenin in a subset of larval hepatocytes was sufficient to drive HCC initiation. To determine the role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling heterogeneity later in hepatocarcinogenesis, we performed RNA-seq analysis of zebrafish β-catenin-driven HCC. At the single-cell level, 2.9% to 15.2% of hepatocytes from zebrafish β-catenin-driven HCC expressed two or more of the Wnt target genes axin2, mtor, glula, myca and wif1, indicating focal activation of Wnt signaling in established tumors. Thus, heterogeneous β-catenin activation drives HCC initiation and persists throughout hepatocarcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharanya M Kalasekar
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Srishti Kotiyal
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Christopher Conley
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Cindy Phan
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Annika Young
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Kimberley J Evason
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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Adebayo Michael AO, Ko S, Tao J, Moghe A, Yang H, Xu M, Russell JO, Pradhan-Sundd T, Liu S, Singh S, Poddar M, Monga JS, Liu P, Oertel M, Ranganathan S, Singhi A, Rebouissou S, Zucman-Rossi J, Ribback S, Calvisi D, Qvartskhava N, Görg B, Häussinger D, Chen X, Monga SP. Inhibiting Glutamine-Dependent mTORC1 Activation Ameliorates Liver Cancers Driven by β-Catenin Mutations. Cell Metab 2019; 29:1135-1150.e6. [PMID: 30713111 PMCID: PMC6506359 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2019.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Based on their lobule location, hepatocytes display differential gene expression, including pericentral hepatocytes that surround the central vein, which are marked by Wnt-β-catenin signaling. Activating β-catenin mutations occur in a variety of liver tumors, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), but no specific therapies are available to treat these tumor subsets. Here, we identify a positive relationship between β-catenin activation, its transcriptional target glutamine synthetase (GS), and p-mTOR-S2448, an indicator of mTORC1 activation. In normal livers of mice and humans, pericentral hepatocytes were simultaneously GS and p-mTOR-S2448 positive, as were β-catenin-mutated liver tumors. Genetic disruption of β-catenin signaling or GS prevented p-mTOR-S2448 expression, while its forced expression in β-catenin-deficient livers led to ectopic p-mTOR-S2448 expression. Further, we found notable therapeutic benefit of mTORC1 inhibition in mutant-β-catenin-driven HCC through suppression of cell proliferation and survival. Thus, mTORC1 inhibitors could be highly relevant in the treatment of liver tumors that are β-catenin mutated and GS positive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeola O Adebayo Michael
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Sungjin Ko
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Junyan Tao
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Akshata Moghe
- Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Hong Yang
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Medical Ultrasonics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, China
| | - Meng Xu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, PR China; Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences and Liver Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jacquelyn O Russell
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Tirthadipa Pradhan-Sundd
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Silvia Liu
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Sucha Singh
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Minakshi Poddar
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Jayvir S Monga
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Pin Liu
- Department of Pediatrics, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, PR China
| | - Michael Oertel
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Sarangarajan Ranganathan
- Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Division of Pediatric Pathology, Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Aatur Singhi
- Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Division of Anatomic Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Sandra Rebouissou
- Inserm, UMR-1162, Génomique fonctionnelle des Tumeurs solides, Equipe Labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer, Paris 75010, France; Université Paris Descartes, Labex Immuno-Oncology, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 75010 Paris, France; Université Paris 13, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UFR SMBH, 93000 Bobigny, France; Université Paris Diderot, IUH, 75010 Paris, France
| | - Jessica Zucman-Rossi
- Inserm, UMR-1162, Génomique fonctionnelle des Tumeurs solides, Equipe Labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer, Paris 75010, France; Université Paris Descartes, Labex Immuno-Oncology, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 75010 Paris, France; Université Paris 13, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UFR SMBH, 93000 Bobigny, France; Université Paris Diderot, IUH, 75010 Paris, France
| | - Silvia Ribback
- Institute of Pathology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Diego Calvisi
- Institute of Pathology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Natalia Qvartskhava
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Boris Görg
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Dieter Häussinger
- Clinic for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Xin Chen
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences and Liver Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Satdarshan P Monga
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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12
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Min Q, Molina L, Li J, Adebayo Michael AO, Russell JO, Preziosi ME, Singh S, Poddar M, Matz-Soja M, Ranganathan S, Bell AW, Gebhardt R, Gaunitz F, Yu J, Tao J, Monga SP. β-Catenin and Yes-Associated Protein 1 Cooperate in Hepatoblastoma Pathogenesis. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2019; 189:1091-1104. [PMID: 30794807 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2019.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Revised: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Hepatoblastoma (HB), the most common pediatric primary liver neoplasm, shows nuclear localization of β-catenin and yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1) in almost 80% of the cases. Co-expression of constitutively active S127A-YAP1 and ΔN90 deletion-mutant β-catenin (YAP1-ΔN90-β-catenin) causes HB in mice. Because heterogeneity in downstream signaling is being identified owing to mutational differences even in the β-catenin gene alone, we investigated if co-expression of point mutants of β-catenin (S33Y or S45Y) with S127A-YAP1 led to similar tumors as YAP1-ΔN90-β-catenin. Co-expression of S33Y/S45Y-β-catenin and S127A-YAP1 led to activation of Yap and Wnt signaling and development of HB, with 100% mortality by 13 to 14 weeks. Co-expression with YAP1-S45Y/S33Y-β-catenin of the dominant-negative T-cell factor 4 or dominant-negative transcriptional enhanced associate domain 2, the respective surrogate transcription factors, prevented HB development. Although histologically similar, HB in YAP1-S45Y/S33Y-β-catenin, unlike YAP1-ΔN90-β-catenin HB, was glutamine synthetase (GS) positive. However, both ΔN90-β-catenin and point-mutant β-catenin comparably induced GS-luciferase reporter in vitro. Finally, using a previously reported 16-gene signature, it was shown that YAP1-ΔN90-β-catenin HB tumors exhibited genetic similarities with more proliferative, less differentiated, GS-negative HB patient tumors, whereas YAP1-S33Y/S45Y-β-catenin HB exhibited heterogeneity and clustered with both well-differentiated GS-positive and proliferative GS-negative patient tumors. Thus, we demonstrate that β-catenin point mutants can also collaborate with YAP1 in HB development, albeit with a distinct molecular profile from the deletion mutant, which may have implications in both biology and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Min
- Department of Oncology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Laura Molina
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Jing Li
- Department of Gynecology, Shiyan Taihe Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan, China
| | - Adeola O Adebayo Michael
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Jacquelyn O Russell
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Morgan E Preziosi
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Sucha Singh
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Minakshi Poddar
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Madlen Matz-Soja
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sarangarajan Ranganathan
- Division of Pediatric Pathology, Department of Pathology, Children's Hospital, Pittburgh, Pennsylvania; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Aaron W Bell
- Division of Experimental Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Rolf Gebhardt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Frank Gaunitz
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jinming Yu
- Department of Oncology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China; Department of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Shandong Academy of Medical Science, Jinan, China.
| | - Junyan Tao
- Department of Gynecology, Shiyan Taihe Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan, China; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Satdarshan P Monga
- Department of Gynecology, Shiyan Taihe Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan, China; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
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13
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Mattu S, Saliba C, Sulas P, Zavattari P, Perra A, Kowalik MA, Monga SP, Columbano A. High Frequency of β-Catenin Mutations in Mouse Hepatocellular Carcinomas Induced by a Nongenotoxic Constitutive Androstane Receptor Agonist. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2018; 188:2497-2507. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2018.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Revised: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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14
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Abstract
There have been many attempts to unveil the therapeutic potential of antisense molecules during the last decade. Due to its specific role in canonical Wnt signalling, β-catenin is a potential target for an antisense-based antitumour therapy. In order to establish such a strategy with peptide nucleic acids, we developed a reporter assay for quantification of antisense effects. The luciferase-based assay detects splice blocking with high sensitivity. Using this assay, we show that the splice donor of exon 13 of β-catenin is particularly suitable for an antisense strategy, as it results in a truncated protein which lacks transactivating functions. Since the truncated proteins retain the interactions with Tcf/Lef proteins, they act in a dominant negative fashion competing with wild-type proteins and thus blocking the transcriptional activity of β-catenin. Furthermore, we show that the truncation does not interfere with binding of cadherin and α-catenin, both essential for its function in cell adhesion. Therefore, the antisense strategy blocks Wnt signalling with high efficiency but retains other important functions of β-catenin.
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15
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Hadjadj D, Kim SJ, Denecker T, Driss LB, Cadoret JC, Maric C, Baldacci G, Fauchereau F. A hypothesis-driven approach identifies CDK4 and CDK6 inhibitors as candidate drugs for treatments of adrenocortical carcinomas. Aging (Albany NY) 2017; 9:2695-2716. [PMID: 29283884 PMCID: PMC5764399 DOI: 10.18632/aging.101356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 12/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
High proliferation rate and high mutation density are both indicators of poor prognosis in adrenocortical carcinomas. We performed a hypothesis-driven association study between clinical features in adrenocortical carcinomas and the expression levels of 136 genes involved in DNA metabolism and G1/S phase transition. In 79 samples downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas portal, high Cyclin Dependent Kinase 6 (CDK6) mRNA levels gave the most significant association with shorter time to relapse and poorer survival of patients. A hierarchical clustering approach assembled most tumors with high levels of CDK6 mRNA into one group. These tumors tend to cumulate mutations activating the Wnt/β-catenin pathway and show reduced MIR506 expression. Actually, the level of MIR506 RNA is inversely correlated with the levels of both CDK6 and CTNNB1 (encoding β-catenin). Together these results indicate that high CDK6 expression is found in aggressive tumors with activated Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Thus we tested the impact of Food and Drug Administration-approved CDK4 and CDK6 inhibitors, namely palbociclib and ribociclib, on SW-13 and NCI-H295R cells. While both drugs reduced viability and induced senescence in SW-13 cells, only palbociclib was effective on the retinoblastoma protein (pRB)-negative NCI-H295R cells, by inducing apoptosis. In NCI-H295R cells, palbociclib induced an increase of the active form of Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3β (GSK3β) responsible for the reduced amount of active β-catenin, and altered the amount of AXIN2 mRNA. Taken together, these data underline the impact of CDK4 and CDK6 inhibitors in treating adrenocortical carcinomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Djihad Hadjadj
- Pathologies de la Réplication de l'ADN, Université Paris-Diderot – Paris 7, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS UMR7592, Institut Jacques-Monod, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Su-Jung Kim
- Pathologies de la Réplication de l'ADN, Université Paris-Diderot – Paris 7, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS UMR7592, Institut Jacques-Monod, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Thomas Denecker
- Pathologies de la Réplication de l'ADN, Université Paris-Diderot – Paris 7, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS UMR7592, Institut Jacques-Monod, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Laura Ben Driss
- Pathologies de la Réplication de l'ADN, Université Paris-Diderot – Paris 7, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS UMR7592, Institut Jacques-Monod, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Jean-Charles Cadoret
- Pathologies de la Réplication de l'ADN, Université Paris-Diderot – Paris 7, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS UMR7592, Institut Jacques-Monod, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Chrystelle Maric
- Pathologies de la Réplication de l'ADN, Université Paris-Diderot – Paris 7, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS UMR7592, Institut Jacques-Monod, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Giuseppe Baldacci
- Pathologies de la Réplication de l'ADN, Université Paris-Diderot – Paris 7, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS UMR7592, Institut Jacques-Monod, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
| | - Fabien Fauchereau
- Pathologies de la Réplication de l'ADN, Université Paris-Diderot – Paris 7, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS UMR7592, Institut Jacques-Monod, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
- ePôle de Génoinformatique, Université Paris-Diderot – Paris 7, Sorbonne Paris Cité, CNRS UMR7592, Institut Jacques-Monod, 75205 Paris Cedex 13, France
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16
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De Ita-Pérez DL, Díaz-Muñoz M. Synchronization by Daytime Restricted Food Access Modulates the Presence and Subcellular Distribution of β-Catenin and Its Phosphorylated Forms in the Rat Liver. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2017; 8:14. [PMID: 28220106 PMCID: PMC5292920 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
β-catenin, the principal effector of the Wnt pathway, is also one of the cadherin cell adhesion molecules; therefore, it fulfills signaling and structural roles in most of the tissues and organs. It has been reported that β-catenin in the liver regulates metabolic responses such as gluconeogenesis and histological changes in response to obesity-promoting diets. The function and cellular location of β-catenin is finely modulated by coordinated sequences of phosphorylation-dephosphorylation events. In this article, we evaluated the levels and cellular localization of liver β-catenin variants, more specifically β-catenin phosphorylated in serine 33 (this phosphorylation provides recognizing sites for β-TrCP, which results in ubiquitination and posterior proteasomal degradation of β-catenin) and β-catenin phosphorylated in serine 675 (phosphorylation that enhances signaling and transcriptional activity of β-catenin through recruitment of different transcriptional coactivators). β-catenin phosphorylated in serine 33 in the nucleus shows day-night fluctuations in their expression level in the Ad Libitum group. In addition, we used a daytime restricted feeding (DRF) protocol to show that the above effects are sensitive to food access-dependent circadian synchronization. We found through western blot and immunohistochemical analyses that DRF protocol promoted (1) higher total β-catenins levels mainly associated with the plasma membrane, (2) reduced the presence of cytoplasmic β-catenin phosphorylated in serine 33, (3) an increase in nuclear β-catenin phosphorylated in serine 675, (4) differential co-localization of total β-catenins/β-catenin phosphorylated in serine 33 and total β-catenins/β-catenin phosphorylated in serine 675 at different temporal points along day and in fasting and refeeding conditions, and (5) differential liver zonation of β-catenin variants studied along hepatic acinus. In conclusion, the present data comprehensively characterize the effect food synchronization has on the presence, subcellular distribution, and liver zonation of β-catenin variants. These results are relevant to understand the set of metabolic and structural liver adaptations that are associated with the expression of the food entrained oscillator (FEO).
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalia Luz De Ita-Pérez
- Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro, Querétaro, México
| | - Mauricio Díaz-Muñoz
- Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Querétaro, Querétaro, México
- *Correspondence: Mauricio Díaz-Muñoz,
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