Derivation, Characterization, and Neural Differentiation of Integration-Free Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Lines from Parkinson's Disease Patients Carrying SNCA, LRRK2, PARK2, and GBA Mutations

IPSC-NSCs-derived exosomal let-7b-5p improves motor function after spinal cord Injury by modulating microglial/macrophage pyroptosis

BACKGROUND

Following spinal cord injury (SCI), the inflammatory storm initiated by microglia/macrophages poses a significant impediment to the recovery process. Exosomes play a crucial role in the transport of miRNAs, facilitating essential cellular communication through the transfer of genetic material. However, the miRNAs from iPSC-NSCs-Exos and their potential mechanisms leading to repair after SCI remain unclear. This study aims to explore the role of iPSC-NSCs-Exos in microglia/macrophage pyroptosis and reveal their potential mechanisms.

METHODS

iPSC-NSCs-Exos were characterized and identified using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), and Western blot. A mouse SCI model and a series of in vivo and in vitro experiments were conducted to investigate the therapeutic effects of iPSC-NSCs-Exos. Subsequently, miRNA microarray analysis and rescue experiments were performed to confirm the role of miRNAs in iPSC-NSCs-Exos in SCI. Mechanistic studies were carried out using Western blot, luciferase activity assays, and RNA-ChIP.

RESULTS

Our findings revealed that iPSC-NSCs-derived exosomes inhibited microglia/macrophage pyroptosis at 7 days post-SCI, maintaining myelin integrity and promoting axonal growth, ultimately improving mice motor function. The miRNA microarray showed let-7b-5p to be highly enriched in iPSC-NSCs-Exos, and LRIG3 was identified as the target gene of let-7b-5p. Through a series of rescue experiments, we uncovered the connection between iPSC-NSCs and microglia/macrophages, revealing a novel target for treating SCI.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, we discovered that iPSC-NSCs-derived exosomes can package and deliver let-7b-5p, regulating the expression of LRIG3 to ameliorate microglia/macrophage pyroptosis and enhance motor function in mice after SCI. This highlights the potential of combined therapy with iPSC-NSCs-Exos and let-7b-5p in promoting functional recovery and limiting inflammation following SCI.

Deregulation of mTORC1-TFEB axis in human iPSC model of GBA1-associated Parkinson's disease

Mutations in the GBA1 gene are the single most frequent genetic risk factor for Parkinson's disease (PD). Neurodegenerative changes in GBA1-associated PD have been linked to the defective lysosomal clearance of autophagic substrates and aggregate-prone proteins. To elucidate novel mechanisms contributing to proteinopathy in PD, we investigated the effect of GBA1 mutations on the transcription factor EB (TFEB), the master regulator of the autophagy-lysosomal pathway (ALP). Using PD patients' induced-pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), we examined TFEB activity and regulation of the ALP in dopaminergic neuronal cultures generated from iPSC lines harboring heterozygous GBA1 mutations and the CRISPR/Cas9-corrected isogenic controls. Our data showed a significant decrease in TFEB transcriptional activity and attenuated expression of many genes in the CLEAR network in GBA1 mutant neurons, but not in the isogenic gene-corrected cells. In PD neurons, we also detected increased activity of the mammalian target of rapamycin complex1 (mTORC1), the main upstream negative regulator of TFEB. Increased mTORC1 activity resulted in excess TFEB phosphorylation and decreased nuclear translocation. Pharmacological mTOR inhibition restored TFEB activity, decreased ER stress and reduced α-synuclein accumulation, indicating improvement of neuronal protiostasis. Moreover, treatment with the lipid substrate reducing compound Genz-123346, decreased mTORC1 activity and increased TFEB expression in the mutant neurons, suggesting that mTORC1-TFEB alterations are linked to the lipid substrate accumulation. Our study unveils a new mechanism contributing to PD susceptibility by GBA1 mutations in which deregulation of the mTORC1-TFEB axis mediates ALP dysfunction and subsequent proteinopathy. It also indicates that pharmacological restoration of TFEB activity could be a promising therapeutic approach in GBA1-associated neurodegeneration.

Mitochondrial function and dynamics in neural stem cells and neurogenesis: Implications for neurodegenerative diseases

Mitochondria have been largely described as the powerhouse of the cell and recent findings demonstrate that this organelle is fundamental for neurogenesis. The mechanisms underlying neural stem cells (NSCs) maintenance and differentiation are highly regulated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Mitochondrial-mediated switch from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation, accompanied by mitochondrial remodeling and dynamics are vital to NSCs fate. Deregulation of mitochondrial proteins, mitochondrial DNA, function, fission/fusion and metabolism underly several neurodegenerative diseases; data show that these impairments are already present in early developmental stages and NSC fate decisions. However, little is known about mitochondrial role in neurogenesis. In this Review, we describe the recent evidence covering mitochondrial role in neurogenesis, its impact in selected neurodegenerative diseases, for which aging is the major risk factor, and the recent advances in stem cell-based therapies that may alleviate neurodegenerative disorders-related neuronal deregulation through improvement of mitochondrial function and dynamics.

“Focused Ultrasound-mediated Drug Delivery in Humans – a Path Towards Translation in Neurodegenerative Diseases”

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) has a major protective function in preventing the entry of harmful molecules into the brain, but is simultaneously limiting the delivery of drugs, restricting their potential clinical application in neurodegenerative diseases. Recent preclinical evidence demonstrates that following application of focused ultrasound with microbubbles (FUS+MB), the BBB becomes reversibly accessible to compounds that normally are brain-impermeable, suggesting FUS+MB as a promising new platform for delivery of therapeutic agents into the central nervous system. As a step towards translation, small cohort clinical studies were performed demonstrating safe BBB opening in Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients following FUS+MB, however improved drug delivery has not yet been achieved in human. Simultaneously, rapid progress in the human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) modeling technology allowed for development of novel Alzheimer’s disease patient-derived BBB in vitro model that reacts to FUS+MB with BBB opening and can be used to answer fundamental questions of human BBB responses to FUS+MB in health and disease. This review summarizes key features of the BBB that contribute to limited drug delivery, recapitulates recent advances in the FUS+MB mediated human BBB opening in vivo and in vitro in the context of neurodegenerative disorders, and highlights potential strategies for fast-track translation of the FUS+MB to improve bioavailability of drugs to the human brain. With safe and effective application, this innovative FUS+MB technology may open new avenues for therapeutic interventions in neurodegenerative diseases leading to improved clinical outcomes for patients.

Lewy Body-like Inclusions in Human Midbrain Organoids Carrying Glucocerebrosidase and α-Synuclein Mutations

Objective

We utilized human midbrain‐like organoids (hMLOs) generated from human pluripotent stem cells carrying glucocerebrosidase gene (GBA1) and α‐synuclein (α‐syn; SNCA) perturbations to investigate genotype‐to‐phenotype relationships in Parkinson disease, with the particular aim of recapitulating α‐syn– and Lewy body–related pathologies and the process of neurodegeneration in the hMLO model.

Methods

We generated and characterized hMLOs from GBA1^−/− and SNCA overexpressing isogenic embryonic stem cells and also generated Lewy body–like inclusions in GBA1/SNCA dual perturbation hMLOs and conduritol‐b‐epoxide–treated SNCA triplication hMLOs.

Results

We identified for the first time that the loss of glucocerebrosidase, coupled with wild‐type α‐syn overexpression, results in a substantial accumulation of detergent‐resistant, β‐sheet–rich α‐syn aggregates and Lewy body–like inclusions in hMLOs. These Lewy body–like inclusions exhibit a spherically symmetric morphology with an eosinophilic core, containing α‐syn with ubiquitin, and can also be formed in Parkinson disease patient–derived hMLOs. We also demonstrate that impaired glucocerebrosidase function promotes the formation of Lewy body–like inclusions in hMLOs derived from patients carrying the SNCA triplication.

Interpretation

Taken together, the data indicate that our hMLOs harboring 2 major risk factors (glucocerebrosidase deficiency and wild‐type α‐syn overproduction) of Parkinson disease provide a tractable model to further elucidate the underlying mechanisms for progressive Lewy body formation. ANN NEUROL 2021;90:490–505

Modelling Parkinson's Disease: iPSCs towards Better Understanding of Human Pathology

Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor and non-motor symptoms, among which are bradykinesia, rigidity, tremor as well as mental symptoms such as dementia. The underlying cause of Parkinson disease is degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. It has been challenging to develop an efficient animal model to accurately represent the complex phenotypes found with PD. However, it has become possible to recapitulate the myriad of phenotypes underlying the PD pathology by using human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology. Patient-specific iPSC-derived dopaminergic neurons are available and present an opportunity to study many aspects of the PD phenotypes in a dish. In this review, we report the available data on iPSC-derived neurons derived from PD patients with identified gene mutations. Specifically, we will report on the key phenotypes of the generated iPSC-derived neurons from PD patients with different genetic background. Furthermore, we discuss the relationship these cellular phenotypes have to PD pathology and future challenges and prospects for iPSC modelling and understanding of the pathogenesis of PD.

Generation of human midbrain organoids from induced pluripotent stem cells

The development of brain organoids represents a major technological advance in the stem cell field, a novel bridge between traditional 2D cultures and in vivo animal models. In particular, the development of midbrain organoids containing functional dopaminergic neurons producing neuromelanin granules, a by-product of dopamine synthesis, represents a potential new model for Parkinson’s disease. To generate human midbrain organoids, we introduce specific inductive cues, at defined timepoints, during the 3D culture process to drive the stem cells towards a midbrain fate. In this method paper, we describe a standardized protocol to generate human midbrain organoids (hMOs) from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). This protocol was developed to demonstrate how human iPSCs can be successfully differentiated into numerous, high quality midbrain organoids in one batch. We also describe adaptations for cryosectioning of fixed organoids for subsequent histological analysis.

Cross-talks among GBA mutations, glucocerebrosidase, and α-synuclein in GBA-associated Parkinson's disease and their targeted therapeutic approaches: a comprehensive review

Current therapies for Parkinson's disease (PD) are palliative, of which the levodopa/carbidopa therapy remains the primary choice but is unable to modulate the progression of neurodegeneration. Due to the complication of such a multifactorial disorder and significant limitations of the therapy, numerous genetic approaches have been proved effective in finding out genes and mechanisms implicated in this disease. Following the observation of a higher frequency of PD in Gaucher's disease (GD), a lysosomal storage condition, mutations of glycosylceramidase beta (GBA) encoding glucocerebrosidase (GCase) have been shown to be involved and have been explored in the context of PD. GBA mutations are the most common genetic risk factor of PD. Various studies have revealed the relationships between PD and GBA gene mutations, facilitating a better understanding of this disorder. Various hypotheses delineate that the pathological mutations of GBA minimize the enzymatic activity of GCase, which affects the proliferation and clearance of α-synuclein; this affects the lysosomal homeostasis, exacerbating the endoplasmic reticulum stress or encouraging the mitochondrial dysfunction. Identification of the pathological mechanisms underlying the GBA-associated parkinsonism (GBA + PD) advances our understanding of PD. This review based on current literature aims to elucidate various genetic and clinical characteristics correlated with GBA mutations and to identify the numerous pathological processes underlying GBA + PD. We also delineate the therapeutic strategies to interfere with the mutant GCase function for further improvement of the related α-synuclein-GCase crosstalks. Moreover, the various therapeutic approaches such as gene therapy, chaperone proteins, and histone deacetylase inhibitors for the treatment of GBA + PD are discussed.

Cross-talks among GBA mutations, glucocerebrosidase, and α-synuclein in GBA-associated Parkinson’s disease and their targeted therapeutic approaches: a comprehensive review

Current therapies for Parkinson’s disease (PD) are palliative, of which the levodopa/carbidopa therapy remains the primary choice but is unable to modulate the progression of neurodegeneration. Due to the complication of such a multifactorial disorder and significant limitations of the therapy, numerous genetic approaches have been proved effective in finding out genes and mechanisms implicated in this disease. Following the observation of a higher frequency of PD in Gaucher’s disease (GD), a lysosomal storage condition, mutations of glycosylceramidase beta (GBA) encoding glucocerebrosidase (GCase) have been shown to be involved and have been explored in the context of PD. GBA mutations are the most common genetic risk factor of PD. Various studies have revealed the relationships between PD and GBA gene mutations, facilitating a better understanding of this disorder. Various hypotheses delineate that the pathological mutations of GBA minimize the enzymatic activity of GCase, which affects the proliferation and clearance of α-synuclein; this affects the lysosomal homeostasis, exacerbating the endoplasmic reticulum stress or encouraging the mitochondrial dysfunction. Identification of the pathological mechanisms underlying the GBA-associated parkinsonism (GBA + PD) advances our understanding of PD. This review based on current literature aims to elucidate various genetic and clinical characteristics correlated with GBA mutations and to identify the numerous pathological processes underlying GBA + PD. We also delineate the therapeutic strategies to interfere with the mutant GCase function for further improvement of the related α-synuclein–GCase crosstalks. Moreover, the various therapeutic approaches such as gene therapy, chaperone proteins, and histone deacetylase inhibitors for the treatment of GBA + PD are discussed.

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) as game-changing tools in the treatment of neurodegenerative disease: Mirage or reality?

Based on investigations, there exist tight correlations between neurodegenerative diseases' incidence and progression and aberrant protein aggregreferates in nervous tissue. However, the pathology of these diseases is not well known, leading to an inability to find an appropriate therapeutic approach to delay occurrence or slow many neurodegenerative diseases' development. The accessibility of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) in mimicking the phenotypes of various late-onset neurodegenerative diseases presents a novel strategy for in vitro disease modeling. The iPSCs provide a valuable and well-identified resource to clarify neurodegenerative disease mechanisms, as well as prepare a promising human stem cell platform for drug screening. Undoubtedly, neurodegenerative disease modeling using iPSCs has established innovative opportunities for both mechanistic types of research and recognition of novel disease treatments. Most important, the iPSCs have been considered as a novel autologous cell origin for cell-based therapy of neurodegenerative diseases following differentiation to varied types of neural lineage cells (e.g. GABAergic neurons, dopamine neurons, cortical neurons, and motor neurons). In this review, we summarize iPSC-based disease modeling in neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease. Moreover, we discuss the efficacy of cell-replacement therapies for neurodegenerative disease.

One Step Into the Future: New iPSC Tools to Advance Research in Parkinson's Disease and Neurological Disorders

Studying Parkinson’s disease (PD) in the laboratory presents many challenges, the main one being the limited availability of human cells and tissue from affected individuals. As PD is characterized by a loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the brain, it is nearly impossible for researchers to access and extract these cells from living patients. Thus, in the past PD research has focused on the use of patients’ post-mortem tissues, animal models, or immortalized cell lines to dissect cellular pathways of interest. While these strategies deepened our knowledge of pathological mechanisms in PD, they failed to faithfully capture key mechanisms at play in the human brain. The emergence of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology is revolutionizing PD research, as it allows for the differentiation and growth of human DA neurons in vitro, holding immense potential not only for modelling PD, but also for identifying novel therapies. However, to reproduce the complexity of the brain’s environment, researchers are recognizing the need to further develop and refine iPSC-based tools. In this review, we provide an overview of different systems now available for the study of PD, with a particular emphasis on the potential and limitations of iPSC as research tools to generate more relevant models of PD pathophysiology and advance the drug discovery process.

Genetic predispositions of Parkinson's disease revealed in patient-derived brain cells

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurological disorder and has been the focus of intense investigations to understand its etiology and progression, but it still lacks a cure. Modeling diseases of the central nervous system in vitro with human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) is still in its infancy but has the potential to expedite the discovery and validation of new treatments. Here, we discuss the interplay between genetic predispositions and midbrain neuronal impairments in people living with PD. We first summarize the prevalence of causal Parkinson's genes and risk factors reported in 74 epidemiological and genomic studies. We then present a meta-analysis of 385 hiPSC-derived neuronal lines from 67 recent independent original research articles, which point towards specific impairments in neurons from Parkinson's patients, within the context of genetic predispositions. Despite the heterogeneous nature of the disease, current iPSC models reveal converging molecular pathways underlying neurodegeneration in a range of familial and sporadic forms of Parkinson's disease. Altogether, consolidating our understanding of robust cellular phenotypes across genetic cohorts of Parkinson's patients may guide future personalized drug screens in preclinical research.

miRNA-mRNA crosstalk in myocardial ischemia induced by calcified aortic valve stenosis

Aortic valve stenosis is the most common cause of morbidity and mortality in valvular heart disease in aged people. Both microRNA (miRNA) and mRNA are potential targets for the diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of myocardial ischemia induced by calcified aortic valve stenosis (CAVS), with unclear mechanisms. Here, 3 gene expression profiles of 47 male participants were applied to generate shared differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with significant major biological functions. Moreover, 20 hub genes were generated by a Weighted Genes Co-Expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) and were cross-linked to miRNA based on miRanda/miRwalk2 databases. Integrated miRNA/mRNA analysis identified several novel miRNAs and targeted genes as diagnostic/prognostic biomarkers or therapeutic targets in CAVS patients. In addition, the clinical data suggested that myocardial hypertrophy and myocardial ischemia in CAVS patients are likely associated with hub genes and the upstream regulatory miRNAs. Together, our data provide evidence that miRNAs and their targeted genes play an important role in the pathogenesis of myocardial hypertrophy and ischemia in patients with CAVS.

A compendious summary of Parkinson's disease patient-derived iPSCs in the first decade

The number of Parkinson's disease (PD) patients increases with aging, which brings heavy burden to families and society. The emergence of patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has brought hope to the current situation of lacking new breakthroughs in diagnosis and treatment of PD. In this article, we reviewed and analyzed the current researches related to PD patient-derived iPSCs, in order to provide solid theoretical basis for future study of PD. In 2008, successful iPSCs derived from PD patients were reported. The current iPSCs research in PD mostly focused on the establishment of specific iPSCs models of PD patients carrying susceptible genes. The main source of PD patient-derived iPSCs is skin fibroblasts and the mainstream reprogramming methodology is the mature "four-factor" method, which introduces four totipotent correlation factors Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc into somatic cells. The main sources of iPSCs are patients with non-pedigrees and there have been no studies involving both PD patients and unaffected carriers within the same family. Most of the existing studies of PD patient-derived iPSCs started with the induction method for obtaining dopaminergic neurons in the first instance, but therapeutic applications are being increased. Although it is not the ultimate panacea, and there are still some unsolved problems (e.g., whether the mutated genes should be corrected or not), a better understanding of iPSCs may be a good gift for both PD patients and doctors due to their advantages in diagnosis and treatment of PD.

Impaired serine metabolism complements LRRK2-G2019S pathogenicity in PD patients

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a multifactorial disorder with complex etiology. The most prevalent PD associated mutation, LRRK2-G2019S is linked to familial and sporadic cases. Based on the multitude of genetic predispositions in PD and the incomplete penetrance of LRRK2-G2019S, we hypothesize that modifiers in the patients' genetic background act as susceptibility factors for developing PD. To assess LRRK2-G2019S modifiers, we used human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neuroepithelial stem cells (NESCs). Isogenic controls distinguish between LRRK2-G2019S dependent and independent cellular phenotypes. LRRK2-G2019S patient and healthy mutagenized lines showed altered NESC self-renewal and viability, as well as impaired serine metabolism. In patient cells, phenotypes were only partly LRRK2-G2019S dependent, suggesting a significant contribution of the genetic background. In this context we identified the gene serine racemase (SRR) as a novel patient-specific, developmental, genetic modifier contributing to the aberrant phenotypes. Its enzymatic product, d-serine, rescued altered cellular phenotypes. Susceptibility factors in the genetic background, such as SRR, could be new targets for early PD diagnosis and treatment.

Glucocerebrosidase and its relevance to Parkinson disease

Mutations in GBA1, the gene encoding the lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase, are among the most common known genetic risk factors for the development of Parkinson disease and related synucleinopathies. A great deal is known about GBA1, as mutations in GBA1 are causal for the rare autosomal storage disorder Gaucher disease. Over the past decades, significant progress has been made in understanding the genetics and cell biology of glucocerebrosidase. A least 495 different mutations, found throughout the 11 exons of the gene are reported, including both common and rare variants. Mutations in GBA1 may lead to degradation of the protein, disruptions in lysosomal targeting and diminished performance of the enzyme in the lysosome.

Gaucher disease is phenotypically diverse and has both neuronopathic and non-neuronopathic forms. Both patients with Gaucher disease and heterozygous carriers are at increased risk of developing Parkinson disease and Dementia with Lewy Bodies, although our understanding of the mechanism for this association remains incomplete. There appears to be an inverse relationship between glucocerebrosidase and α-synuclein levels, and even patients with sporadic Parkinson disease have decreased glucocerebrosidase. Glucocerebrosidase may interact with α-synuclein to maintain basic cellular functions, or impaired glucocerebrosidase could contribute to Parkinson pathogenesis by disrupting lysosomal homeostasis, enhancing endoplasmic reticulum stress or contributing to mitochondrial impairment. However, the majority of patients with GBA1 mutations never develop parkinsonism, so clearly other risk factors play a role. Treatments for Gaucher disease have been developed that increase visceral glucocerebrosidase levels and decrease lipid storage, although they have yet to properly address the neurological defects associated with impaired glucocerebrosidase. Mouse and induced pluripotent stem cell derived models have improved our understanding of glucocerebrosidase function and the consequences of its deficiency. These models have been used to test novel therapies including chaperone proteins, histone deacetylase inhibitors, and gene therapy approaches that enhance glucocerebrosidase levels and could prove efficacious in the treatment of forms of parkinsonism. Consequently, this rare monogenic disorder, Gaucher disease, provides unique insights directly applicable to our understanding and treatment of Parkinson disease, a common and complex neurodegenerative disorder.

Generation of human midbrain organoids from induced pluripotent stem cells

The development of brain organoids represents a major technological advance in the stem cell field, a novel bridge between traditional 2D cultures and in vivo animal models. In particular, the development of midbrain organoids containing functional dopaminergic neurons producing neuromelanin granules, a by-product of dopamine synthesis, represents a potential new model for Parkinson’s disease. To generate human midbrain organoids, we introduce specific inductive cues, at defined timepoints, during the 3D culture process to drive the stem cells towards a midbrain fate. In this method paper, we describe a standardized protocol to generate human midbrain organoids (hMOs) from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). This protocol was developed to demonstrate how human iPSCs can be successfully differentiated into numerous, high quality midbrain organoids in one batch. We also describe adaptations for cryosectioning of fixed organoids for subsequent histological analysis.

Glucocerebrosidase Mutations in Parkinson Disease

Following the discovery of a higher than expected incidence of Parkinson Disease (PD) in Gaucher disease, a lysosomal storage disorder, mutations in the glucocerebrocidase (GBA) gene, which encodes a lysosomal enzyme involved in sphingolipid degradation were explored in the context of idiopathic PD. GBA mutations are now known to be the single largest risk factor for development of idiopathic PD. Clinically, on imaging and pharmacologically, GBA PD is almost identical to idiopathic PD, other than certain features that can be identified in the specialist research setting but not in routine clinical practice. In patients with a known GBA mutation, it is possible to monitor for prodromal signs of PD. The clinical similarity with idiopathic PD and the chance to identify PD at a pre-clinical stage provides a unique opportunity to research therapeutic options for early PD, before major irreversible neurodegeneration occurs. However, to date, the molecular mechanisms which lead to this increased PD risk in GBA mutation carriers are not fully elucidated. Experimental models to define the molecular mechanisms and test therapeutic options include cell culture, transgenic mice and other in vivo models amenable to genetic manipulation, such as drosophilia. Some key pathological pathways of interest in the context of GBA mutations include alpha synuclein aggregation, lysosomal-autophagy axis changes and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Therapeutic agents that exploit these pathways are being developed and include the small molecule chaperone Ambroxol. This review aims to summarise the main features of GBA-PD and provide insights into the pathological relevance of GBA mutations on molecular pathways and the therapeutic implications for PD resulting from investigation of the role of GBA in PD.

Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Manufactured Using a Current Good Manufacturing Practice-Compliant Process Differentiate Into Clinically Relevant Cells From Three Germ Layers

The discovery of reprogramming and generation of human-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has revolutionized the field of regenerative medicine and opened new opportunities in cell replacement therapies. While generation of iPSCs represents a significant breakthrough, the clinical relevance of iPSCs for cell-based therapies requires generation of high-quality specialized cells through robust and reproducible directed differentiation protocols. We have recently reported manufacturing of human iPSC master cell banks (MCB) under current good manufacturing practices (cGMPs). Here, we describe the clinical potential of human iPSCs generated using this cGMP-compliant process by differentiating them into the cells from all three embryonic germ layers including ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. Most importantly, we have shown that our iPSC manufacturing process and cell culture system is not biased toward a specific lineage. Following controlled induction into a specific differentiation lineage, specialized cells with morphological and cellular characteristics of neural stem cells, definitive endoderm, and cardiomyocytes were developed. We believe that these cGMP-compliant iPSCs have the potential to make various clinically relevant products suitable for cell therapy applications.

Comparison of 2D and 3D neural induction methods for the generation of neural progenitor cells from human induced pluripotent stem cells

Neural progenitor cells (NPCs) from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) are frequently induced using 3D culture methodologies however, it is unknown whether spheroid-based (3D) neural induction is actually superior to monolayer (2D) neural induction. Our aim was to compare the efficiency of 2D induction with 3D induction method in their ability to generate NPCs, and subsequently neurons and astrocytes. Neural differentiation was analysed at the protein level qualitatively by immunocytochemistry and quantitatively by flow cytometry for NPC (SOX1, PAX6, NESTIN), neuronal (MAP2, TUBB3), cortical layer (TBR1, CUX1) and glial markers (SOX9, GFAP, AQP4). Electron microscopy demonstrated that both methods resulted in morphologically similar neural rosettes. However, quantification of NPCs derived from 3D neural induction exhibited an increase in the number of PAX6/NESTIN double positive cells and the derived neurons exhibited longer neurites. In contrast, 2D neural induction resulted in more SOX1 positive cells. While 2D monolayer induction resulted in slightly less mature neurons, at an early stage of differentiation, the patch clamp analysis failed to reveal any significant differences between the electrophysiological properties between the two induction methods. In conclusion, 3D neural induction increases the yield of PAX6⁺/NESTIN⁺ cells and gives rise to neurons with longer neurites, which might be an advantage for the production of forebrain cortical neurons, highlighting the potential of 3D neural induction, independent of iPSCs' genetic background.