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Kim J, Kong JS, Han W, Kim BS, Cho DW. 3D Cell Printing of Tissue/Organ-Mimicking Constructs for Therapeutic and Drug Testing Applications. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E7757. [PMID: 33092184 PMCID: PMC7589604 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21207757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of artificial tissue/organs with the functional maturity of their native equivalents is one of the long-awaited panaceas for the medical and pharmaceutical industries. Advanced 3D cell-printing technology and various functional bioinks are promising technologies in the field of tissue engineering that have enabled the fabrication of complex 3D living tissue/organs. Various requirements for these tissues, including a complex and large-volume structure, tissue-specific microenvironments, and functional vasculatures, have been addressed to develop engineered tissue/organs with native relevance. Functional tissue/organ constructs have been developed that satisfy such criteria and may facilitate both in vivo replenishment of damaged tissue and the development of reliable in vitro testing platforms for drug development. This review describes key developments in technologies and materials for engineering 3D cell-printed constructs for therapeutic and drug testing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongmin Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea;
| | - Jeong Sik Kong
- School of Interdisciplinary Bioscience and Bioengineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea;
| | - Wonil Han
- Division of Integrative Biosciences and Biotechnology, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea;
| | - Byoung Soo Kim
- Future IT Innovation Laboratory, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea;
| | - Dong-Woo Cho
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea;
- School of Interdisciplinary Bioscience and Bioengineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea;
- Institute of Convergence Science, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea
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2
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Siller IG, Epping NM, Lavrentieva A, Scheper T, Bahnemann J. Customizable 3D-Printed (Co-)Cultivation Systems for In Vitro Study of Angiogenesis. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 13:E4290. [PMID: 32992945 PMCID: PMC7579111 DOI: 10.3390/ma13194290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Due to the ever-increasing resolution of 3D printing technology, additive manufacturing is now even used to produce complex devices for laboratory applications. Personalized experimental devices or entire cultivation systems of almost unlimited complexity can potentially be manufactured within hours from start to finish-an enormous potential for experimental parallelization in a highly controllable environment. This study presents customized 3D-printed co-cultivation systems, which qualify for angiogenesis studies. In these systems, endothelial and mesenchymal stem cells (AD-MSC) were indirectly co-cultivated-that is, both cell types were physically separated through a rigid, 3D-printed barrier in the middle, while still sharing the same cell culture medium that allows for the exchange of signalling molecules. Biochemical-based cytotoxicity assays initially confirmed that the 3D printing material does not exert any negative effects on cells. Since the material also enables phase contrast and fluorescence microscopy, the behaviour of cells could be observed over the entire cultivation via both. Microscopic observations and subsequent quantitative analysis revealed that endothelial cells form tubular-like structures as angiogenic feature when indirectly co-cultured alongside AD-MSCs in the 3D-printed co-cultivation system. In addition, further 3D-printed devices are also introduced that address different issues and aspire to help in varying experimental setups. Our results mark an important step forward for the integration of customized 3D-printed systems as self-contained test systems or equipment in biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Janina Bahnemann
- Institute of Technical Chemistry, Leibniz University Hannover, Callinstraße 5, 30167 Hannover, Germany; (I.G.S.); (N.-M.E.); (A.L.); (T.S.)
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Shao L, Gao Q, Xie C, Fu J, Xiang M, He Y. Synchronous 3D Bioprinting of Large-Scale Cell-Laden Constructs with Nutrient Networks. Adv Healthc Mater 2020; 9:e1901142. [PMID: 31846229 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201901142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Maintaining an adequate supply of nutrients/oxygen is a major challenge in the biofabrication of large tissue constructs. However, building preformed nutrient networks may be an effective strategy for engineering thick tissues. Here, a novel way for bioprinting large-scale tissue constructs with intentional nutrient networks is presented. A special nozzle is developed which can print bioink and sacrificial ink half and half synchronously in a single filament. Nutrient networks of these bioprinted constructs are formed by subsequently dissolving away gelatin, which allows for effective oxygen, nutrient, and waste diffusion, facilitating the cell activity and the generation of functional tissues. Due to the cell-laden bioink and sacrificial ink working together and promoting each other's printability to support themselves, complex soft cell-laden constructs with nutrient networks can easily be printed. Furthermore, two different cell types (osteoblast, human umbilical vein endothelial cells) encapsulated in the bioprinted large-scale constructs (≥1 cm) with nutrient networks show enhanced cell viability and spreading within a period of culture. It is envisioned that the advanced bioprinting technology may have significant potentials in facilitating the engineering of complex structures for tissue-specific needs, and bioprinting large-scale tissue constructs with nutrient networks toward applications in organ transplantation and repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Shao
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems and Key Laboratory of 3D Printing Process and Equipment of Zhejiang ProvinceCollege of Mechanical EngineeringZhejiang University Hangzhou 310027 China
| | - Qing Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems and Key Laboratory of 3D Printing Process and Equipment of Zhejiang ProvinceCollege of Mechanical EngineeringZhejiang University Hangzhou 310027 China
| | - Chaoqi Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems and Key Laboratory of 3D Printing Process and Equipment of Zhejiang ProvinceCollege of Mechanical EngineeringZhejiang University Hangzhou 310027 China
| | - Jianzhong Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems and Key Laboratory of 3D Printing Process and Equipment of Zhejiang ProvinceCollege of Mechanical EngineeringZhejiang University Hangzhou 310027 China
| | - Meixiang Xiang
- Department of CardiologySecond Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine Hangzhou 310009 China
| | - Yong He
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems and Key Laboratory of 3D Printing Process and Equipment of Zhejiang ProvinceCollege of Mechanical EngineeringZhejiang University Hangzhou 310027 China
- Key Laboratory of Materials Processing and MoldZhengzhou University Zhengzhou 450002 China
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Yang G, Mahadik B, Choi JY, Fisher JP. Vascularization in tissue engineering: fundamentals and state-of-art. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 2. [PMID: 34308105 DOI: 10.1088/2516-1091/ab5637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Vascularization is among the top challenges that impede the clinical application of engineered tissues. This challenge has spurred tremendous research endeavor, defined as vascular tissue engineering (VTE) in this article, to establish a pre-existing vascular network inside the tissue engineered graft prior to implantation. Ideally, the engineered vasculature can be integrated into the host vasculature via anastomosis to supply nutrient to all cells instantaneously after surgery. Moreover, sufficient vascularization is of great significance in regenerative medicine from many other perspectives. Due to the critical role of vascularization in successful tissue engineering, we aim to provide an up-to-date overview of the fundamentals and VTE strategies in this article, including angiogenic cells, biomaterial/bio-scaffold design and bio-fabrication approaches, along with the reported utility of vascularized tissue complex in regenerative medicine. We will also share our opinion on the future perspective of this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang Yang
- Tissue Engineering and Biomaterials Laboratory, Fischell Department of Bioengineering, A. James Clark School of Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States of America.,Center for Engineering Complex Tissues, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States of America
| | - Bhushan Mahadik
- Tissue Engineering and Biomaterials Laboratory, Fischell Department of Bioengineering, A. James Clark School of Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States of America.,Center for Engineering Complex Tissues, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States of America
| | - Ji Young Choi
- Tissue Engineering and Biomaterials Laboratory, Fischell Department of Bioengineering, A. James Clark School of Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States of America
| | - John P Fisher
- Tissue Engineering and Biomaterials Laboratory, Fischell Department of Bioengineering, A. James Clark School of Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States of America.,Center for Engineering Complex Tissues, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States of America
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Lam T, Dehne T, Krüger JP, Hondke S, Endres M, Thomas A, Lauster R, Sittinger M, Kloke L. Photopolymerizable gelatin and hyaluronic acid for stereolithographic 3D bioprinting of tissue-engineered cartilage. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2019; 107:2649-2657. [PMID: 30860678 PMCID: PMC6790697 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.34354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Revised: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
To create artificial cartilage in vitro, mimicking the function of native extracellular matrix (ECM) and morphological cartilage-like shape is essential. The interplay of cell patterning and matrix concentration has high impact on the phenotype and viability of the printed cells. To advance the capabilities of cartilage bioprinting, we investigated different ECMs to create an in vitro chondrocyte niche. Therefore, we used methacrylated gelatin (GelMA) and methacrylated hyaluronic acid (HAMA) in a stereolithographic bioprinting approach. Both materials have been shown to support cartilage ECM formation and recovery of chondrocyte phenotype. We used these materials as bioinks to create cartilage models with varying chondrocyte densities. The models maintained shape, viability, and homogenous cell distribution over 14 days in culture. Chondrogenic differentiation was demonstrated by cartilage-typical proteoglycan and type II collagen deposition and gene expression (COL2A1, ACAN) after 14 days of culture. The differentiation pattern was influenced by cell density. A high cell density print (25 × 106 cells/mL) led to enhanced cartilage-typical zonal segmentation compared to cultures with lower cell density (5 × 106 cells/mL). Compared to HAMA, GelMA resulted in a higher expression of COL1A1, typical for a more premature chondrocyte phenotype. Both bioinks are feasible for printing in vitro cartilage with varying differentiation patterns and ECM organization depending on starting cell density and chosen bioink. The presented technique could find application in the creation of cartilage models and in the treatment of articular cartilage defects using autologous material and adjusting the bioprinted constructs size and shape to the patient. © 2019 The Authors. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater 107B:2649-2657, 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tilo Dehne
- Charité ‐ Universitätsmedizin BerlinDepartment of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Laboratory for Tissue Engineering
| | | | | | | | | | - Roland Lauster
- Technische Universität BerlinInstitute of Medical BiotechnologyBerlinGermany
| | - Michael Sittinger
- Charité ‐ Universitätsmedizin BerlinDepartment of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Laboratory for Tissue Engineering
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Grebenyuk S, Ranga A. Engineering Organoid Vascularization. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2019; 7:39. [PMID: 30941347 PMCID: PMC6433749 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2019.00039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of increasingly biomimetic human tissue analogs has been a long-standing goal in two important biomedical applications: drug discovery and regenerative medicine. In seeking to understand the safety and effectiveness of newly developed pharmacological therapies and replacement tissues for severely injured non-regenerating tissues and organs, there remains a tremendous unmet need in generating tissues with both functional complexity and scale. Over the last decade, the advent of organoids has demonstrated that cells have the ability to reorganize into complex tissue-specific structures given minimal inductive factors. However, a major limitation in achieving truly in vivo-like functionality has been the lack of structured organization and reasonable tissue size. In vivo, developing tissues are interpenetrated by and interact with a complex network of vasculature which allows not only oxygen, nutrient and waste exchange, but also provide for inductive biochemical exchange and a structural template for growth. Conversely, in vitro, this aspect of organoid development has remained largely missing, suggesting that these may be the critical cues required for large-scale and more reproducible tissue organization. Here, we review recent technical progress in generating in vitro vasculature, and seek to provide a framework for understanding how such technologies, together with theoretical and developmentally inspired insights, can be harnessed to enhance next generation organoid development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei Grebenyuk
- Laboratory of Bioengineering and Morphogenesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Adrian Ranga
- Laboratory of Bioengineering and Morphogenesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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7
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Grix T, Ruppelt A, Thomas A, Amler AK, Noichl BP, Lauster R, Kloke L. Bioprinting Perfusion-Enabled Liver Equivalents for Advanced Organ-on-a-Chip Applications. Genes (Basel) 2018; 9:genes9040176. [PMID: 29565814 PMCID: PMC5924518 DOI: 10.3390/genes9040176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Many tissue models have been developed to mimic liver-specific functions for metabolic and toxin conversion in in vitro assays. Most models represent a 2D environment rather than a complex 3D structure similar to native tissue. To overcome this issue, spheroid cultures have become the gold standard in tissue engineering. Unfortunately, spheroids are limited in size due to diffusion barriers in their dense structures, limiting nutrient and oxygen supply. Recent developments in bioprinting techniques have enabled us to engineer complex 3D structures with perfusion-enabled channel systems to ensure nutritional supply within larger, densely-populated tissue models. In this study, we present a proof-of-concept for the feasibility of bioprinting a liver organoid by combining HepaRG and human stellate cells in a stereolithographic printing approach, and show basic characterization under static cultivation conditions. Using standard tissue engineering analytics, such as immunohistology and qPCR, we found higher albumin and cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) expression in bioprinted liver tissues compared to monolayer controls over a two-week cultivation period. In addition, the expression of tight junctions, liver-specific bile transporter multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2), and overall metabolism (glucose, lactate, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)) were found to be stable. Furthermore, we provide evidence for the perfusability of the organoids’ intrinsic channel system. These results motivate new approaches and further development in liver tissue engineering for advanced organ-on-a-chip applications and pharmaceutical developments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alicia Ruppelt
- Fachgebiet für Medizinische Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Berlin, 13355 Berlin, Germany.
| | | | - Anna-Klara Amler
- Fachgebiet für Medizinische Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Berlin, 13355 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Benjamin P Noichl
- Fachgebiet für Medizinische Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Berlin, 13355 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Roland Lauster
- Fachgebiet für Medizinische Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Berlin, 13355 Berlin, Germany.
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Abstract
Angiogenesis plays an important role not only in the growth and regeneration of tissues in humans but also in pathological conditions such as inflammation, degenerative disease and the formation of tumors. Angiogenesis is also vital in thick engineered tissues and constructs, such as those for the heart and bone, as these can face difficulties in successful implantation if they are insufficiently vascularized or unable to connect to the host vasculature. Considerable research has been carried out on angiogenic processes using a variety of approaches. Pathological angiogenesis has been analyzed at the cellular level through investigation of cell migration and interactions, modeling tissue level interactions between engineered blood vessels and whole organs, and elucidating signaling pathways involved in different angiogenic stimuli. Approaches to regenerative angiogenesis in ischemic tissues or wound repair focus on the vascularization of tissues, which can be broadly classified into two categories: scaffolds to direct and facilitate tissue growth and targeted delivery of genes, cells, growth factors or drugs that promote the regeneration. With technological advancement, models have been designed and fabricated to recapitulate the innate microenvironment. Moreover, engineered constructs provide not only a scaffold for tissue ingrowth but a reservoir of agents that can be controllably released for therapeutic purposes. This review summarizes the current approaches for modeling pathological and regenerative angiogenesis in the context of micro-/nanotechnology and seeks to bridge these two seemingly distant aspects of angiogenesis. The ultimate aim is to provide insights and advances from various models in the realm of angiogenesis studies that can be applied to clinical situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Jiun Chen
- Department of Finemechanics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-01 Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan.
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Justin AW, Brooks RA, Markaki AE. Multi-casting approach for vascular networks in cellularized hydrogels. J R Soc Interface 2017; 13:rsif.2016.0768. [PMID: 27928031 PMCID: PMC5221527 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2016.0768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascularization is essential for living tissue and remains a major challenge in the field of tissue engineering. A lack of a perfusable channel network within a large and densely populated tissue engineered construct leads to necrotic core formation, preventing fabrication of functional tissues and organs. We report a new method for producing a hierarchical, three-dimensional (3D) and perfusable vasculature in a large, cellularized fibrin hydrogel. Bifurcating channels, varying in size from 1 mm to 200–250 µm, are formed using a novel process in which we convert a 3D printed thermoplastic material into a gelatin network template, by way of an intermediate alginate hydrogel. This enables a CAD-based model design, which is highly customizable, reproducible, and which can yield highly complex architectures, to be made into a removable material, which can be used in cellular environments. Our approach yields constructs with a uniform and high density of cells in the bulk, made from bioactive collagen and fibrin hydrogels. Using standard cell staining and immuno-histochemistry techniques, we showed good cell seeding and the presence of tight junctions between channel endothelial cells, and high cell viability and cell spreading in the bulk hydrogel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander W Justin
- Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK
| | - Roger A Brooks
- Division of Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Athina E Markaki
- Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK
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Elomaa L, Yang YP. Additive Manufacturing of Vascular Grafts and Vascularized Tissue Constructs. TISSUE ENGINEERING. PART B, REVIEWS 2017; 23:436-450. [PMID: 27981886 PMCID: PMC5652978 DOI: 10.1089/ten.teb.2016.0348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
There is a great need for engineered vascular grafts among patients with cardiovascular diseases who are in need of bypass therapy and lack autologous healthy blood vessels. In addition, because of the severe worldwide shortage of organ donors, there is an increasing need for engineered vascularized tissue constructs as an alternative to organ transplants. Additive manufacturing (AM) offers great advantages and flexibility of fabrication of cell-laden, multimaterial, and anatomically shaped vascular grafts and vascularized tissue constructs. Various inkjet-, extrusion-, and photocrosslinking-based AM techniques have been applied to the fabrication of both self-standing vascular grafts and porous, vascularized tissue constructs. This review discusses the state-of-the-art research on the use of AM for vascular applications and the key criteria for biomaterials in the AM of both acellular and cellular constructs. We envision that new smart printing materials that can adapt to their environment and encourage rapid endothelialization and remodeling will be the key factor in the future for the successful AM of personalized and dynamic vascular tissue applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Elomaa
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Yunzhi Peter Yang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University School of Engineering, Stanford, California
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University School of Engineering, Stanford, California
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Lee JS, Kim BS, Seo D, Park JH, Cho DW. Three-Dimensional Cell Printing of Large-Volume Tissues: Application to Ear Regeneration. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2017; 23:136-145. [PMID: 28093047 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2016.0362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The three-dimensional (3D) printing of large-volume cells, printed in a clinically relevant size, is one of the most important challenges in the field of tissue engineering. However, few studies have reported the fabrication of large-volume cell-printed constructs (LCCs). To create LCCs, appropriate fabrication conditions should be established: Factors involved include fabrication time, residence time, and temperature control of the cell-laden hydrogel in the syringe to ensure high cell viability and functionality. The prolonged time required for 3D printing of LCCs can reduce cell viability and result in insufficient functionality of the construct, because the cells are exposed to a harsh environment during the printing process. In this regard, we present an advanced 3D cell-printing system composed of a clean air workstation, a humidifier, and a Peltier system, which provides a suitable printing environment for the production of LCCs with high cell viability. We confirmed that the advanced 3D cell-printing system was capable of providing enhanced printability of hydrogels and fabricating an ear-shaped LCC with high cell viability. In vivo results for the ear-shaped LCC also showed that printed chondrocytes proliferated sufficiently and differentiated into cartilage tissue. Thus, we conclude that the advanced 3D cell-printing system is a versatile tool to create cell-printed constructs for the generation of large-volume tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Seob Lee
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) , Pohang, Korea
| | - Byoung Soo Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) , Pohang, Korea
| | - Donghwan Seo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) , Pohang, Korea
| | - Jeong Hun Park
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) , Pohang, Korea
| | - Dong-Woo Cho
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) , Pohang, Korea
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