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Korbmacher F, Drepper B, Sanderson T, Martin P, Stach T, Maier AG, Matuschewski K, Matz JM. An apicoplast-resident folate transporter is essential for sporogony of malaria parasites. Cell Microbiol 2021; 23:e13266. [PMID: 32975363 PMCID: PMC7616068 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Malaria parasites are fast replicating unicellular organisms and require substantial amounts of folate for DNA synthesis. Despite the central role of this critical co-factor for parasite survival, only little is known about intraparasitic folate trafficking in Plasmodium. Here, we report on the expression, subcellular localisation and function of the parasite's folate transporter 2 (FT2) during life cycle progression in the murine malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei. Using live fluorescence microscopy of genetically engineered parasites, we demonstrate that FT2 localises to the apicoplast. In invasive P. berghei stages, a fraction of FT2 is also observed at the apical end. Upon genetic disruption of FT2, blood and liver infection, gametocyte production and mosquito colonisation remain unaltered. But in the Anopheles vector, FT2-deficient parasites develop inflated oocysts with unusual pulp formation consisting of numerous single-membrane vesicles, which ultimately fuse to form large cavities. Ultrastructural analysis suggests that this defect reflects aberrant sporoblast formation caused by abnormal vesicular traffic. Complete sporogony in FT2-deficient oocysts is very rare, and mutant sporozoites fail to establish hepatocyte infection, resulting in a complete block of parasite transmission. Our findings reveal a previously unrecognised organellar folate transporter that exerts critical roles for pathogen maturation in the arthropod vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francois Korbmacher
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Benjamin Drepper
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Theo Sanderson
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Peer Martin
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Stach
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Alexander G. Maier
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Joachim M. Matz
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
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2
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Aygün C, Mutlu Ö. Computational characterisation of Toxoplasma gondii FabG (3-oxoacyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] reductase): a combined virtual screening and all-atom molecular dynamics simulation study. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2020; 40:1952-1969. [PMID: 33063633 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2020.1834456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic obligate parasite, ubiquitous around the globe with seropositivity rates that range from 10% to 90% and infection by the parasite of pregnant women causes pre-natal death of the foetus in most cases and severe neurodegenerative syndromes in some. No vaccine is currently available, and since drug-resistance is common among T. gondii strains, discovering lead compounds for drug design using diverse tactics is necessary. In this study, the sole constituent isoform of an enzymatic 3-oxoacyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] reduction step in an apicoplast-located fatty acid biosynthesis pathway was chosen as a possible drug target. FASII is prokaryotic therefore, targeting it would pose fewer side-effects to human hosts. After a homology 3D modelling of TgFabG, a high-throughput virtual screening of 9867 compounds, the elimination of ligands was carried out by a flexible ligand molecular docking and 200 ns molecular dynamics simulations, with additional DCCM and PC plot analyses. Molecular Dynamics and related post-MD analyses of the top 3 TgFabG binders selected for optimal free binding energies, showed that L2 maintained strong H-bonds with TgFabG and facilitated structural reorientation expected of FabGs, namely an expansion of the Rossmann Fold and a flexible lid capping. The most flexible TgFabG sites were the α7 helix (the flexible lid region) and the β4-α4 and β5-α6 loops. For TgFabG-L2, the movements of these regions toward the active site enabled greater ligand stability. Thus, L2 ("Skimmine"; PubChem ID: 320361), was ultimately selected as the optimal candidate for the discovery of lead compounds for rational drug design.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Can Aygün
- Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Biology Department, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Özal Mutlu
- Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Biology Department, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
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3
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Swift RP, Rajaram K, Keutcha C, Liu HB, Kwan B, Dziedzic A, Jedlicka AE, Prigge ST. The NTP generating activity of pyruvate kinase II is critical for apicoplast maintenance in Plasmodium falciparum. eLife 2020; 9:e50807. [PMID: 32815516 PMCID: PMC7556864 DOI: 10.7554/elife.50807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The apicoplast of Plasmodium falciparum parasites is believed to rely on the import of three-carbon phosphate compounds for use in organelle anabolic pathways, in addition to the generation of energy and reducing power within the organelle. We generated a series of genetic deletions in an apicoplast metabolic bypass line to determine which genes involved in apicoplast carbon metabolism are required for blood-stage parasite survival and organelle maintenance. We found that pyruvate kinase II (PyrKII) is essential for organelle maintenance, but that production of pyruvate by PyrKII is not responsible for this phenomenon. Enzymatic characterization of PyrKII revealed activity against all NDPs and dNDPs tested, suggesting that it may be capable of generating a broad range of nucleotide triphosphates. Conditional mislocalization of PyrKII resulted in decreased transcript levels within the apicoplast that preceded organelle disruption, suggesting that PyrKII is required for organelle maintenance due to its role in nucleotide triphosphate generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell P Swift
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Krithika Rajaram
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Cyrianne Keutcha
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Hans B Liu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Bobby Kwan
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Amanda Dziedzic
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Anne E Jedlicka
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Sean T Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimoreUnited States
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4
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Narayan A, Mastud P, Thakur V, Rathod PK, Mohmmed A, Patankar S. Heterologous expression in Toxoplasma gondii reveals a topogenic signal anchor in a Plasmodium apicoplast protein. FEBS Open Bio 2018; 8:1746-1762. [PMID: 30410855 PMCID: PMC6212639 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.12527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2018] [Revised: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 09/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutathione peroxidase‐like thioredoxin peroxidase (PfTPxGl) is an antioxidant enzyme trafficked to the apicoplast, a secondary endosymbiotic organelle, in Plasmodium falciparum. Apicoplast trafficking signals usually consist of N‐terminal signal and transit peptides, but the trafficking signal of PfTPxGl appears to exhibit important differences. As transfection is a protracted process in P. falciparum, we expressed the N terminus of PfTPxGl as a GFP fusion protein in a related apicomplexan, Toxoplasma gondii, in order to dissect its trafficking signals. We show that PfTPxGl possesses an N‐terminal signal anchor that takes the protein to the endoplasmic reticulum in Toxoplasma—this is the first step in the apicoplast targeting pathway. We dissected the residues important for endomembrane system uptake, membrane anchorage, orientation, spacing, and cleavage. Protease protection assays and fluorescence complementation revealed that the C terminus of the protein lies in the ER lumen, a topology that is proposed to be retained in the apicoplast. Additionally, we examined one mutant, responsible for altered PfTPxGl targeting in Toxoplasma, in Plasmodium. This study has demonstrated that PfTPxGl belongs to an emergent class of proteins that possess signal anchors, unlike the canonical bipartite targeting signals employed for the trafficking of luminal apicoplast proteins. This work adds to the mounting evidence that the signals involved in the targeting of apicoplast membrane proteins may not be as straightforward as those of luminal proteins, and also highlights the usefulness of T. gondii as a heterologous system in certain aspects of this study, such as reducing screening time and facilitating the verification of membrane topology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aishwarya Narayan
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering IIT Bombay Mumbai India
| | - Pragati Mastud
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering IIT Bombay Mumbai India
| | - Vandana Thakur
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology New Delhi India
| | | | - Asif Mohmmed
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology New Delhi India
| | - Swati Patankar
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering IIT Bombay Mumbai India
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5
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Matz JM, Matuschewski K. An in silico down-scaling approach uncovers novel constituents of the Plasmodium-containing vacuole. Sci Rep 2018; 8:14055. [PMID: 30232409 PMCID: PMC6145888 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32471-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
During blood stage development the malaria parasite resides in a membrane-bound compartment, termed the parasitophorous vacuole (PV). The reasons for this intravacuolar life style and the molecular functions of this parasite-specific compartment remain poorly defined, which is mainly due to our limited knowledge about the molecular make-up of this unique niche. We used an in silico down-scaling approach to select for Plasmodium-specific candidates that harbour signatures of PV residency. Live co-localisation of five endogenously tagged proteins confirmed expression in the PV of Plasmodium berghei blood and liver stages. ER retention was ruled out by addition of the respective carboxyterminal tetrapeptides to a secreted reporter protein. Although all five PV proteins are highly expressed, four proved to be dispensable for parasite development in the mammalian and mosquito host, as revealed by targeted gene deletion. In good agreement with their redundant roles, the knockout parasites displayed no detectable deficiencies in protein export, sequestration, or PV morphology. Together, our approach improved the catalogue of the Plasmodium PV proteome and provides experimental genetics evidence for functional redundancy of several PV proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Michael Matz
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, 10115, Berlin, Germany. .,Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, 10117, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, 10115, Berlin, Germany.,Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, 10117, Berlin, Germany
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6
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Cavalier-Smith T. Kingdom Chromista and its eight phyla: a new synthesis emphasising periplastid protein targeting, cytoskeletal and periplastid evolution, and ancient divergences. PROTOPLASMA 2018; 255:297-357. [PMID: 28875267 PMCID: PMC5756292 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-017-1147-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
In 1981 I established kingdom Chromista, distinguished from Plantae because of its more complex chloroplast-associated membrane topology and rigid tubular multipartite ciliary hairs. Plantae originated by converting a cyanobacterium to chloroplasts with Toc/Tic translocons; most evolved cell walls early, thereby losing phagotrophy. Chromists originated by enslaving a phagocytosed red alga, surrounding plastids by two extra membranes, placing them within the endomembrane system, necessitating novel protein import machineries. Early chromists retained phagotrophy, remaining naked and repeatedly reverted to heterotrophy by losing chloroplasts. Therefore, Chromista include secondary phagoheterotrophs (notably ciliates, many dinoflagellates, Opalozoa, Rhizaria, heliozoans) or walled osmotrophs (Pseudofungi, Labyrinthulea), formerly considered protozoa or fungi respectively, plus endoparasites (e.g. Sporozoa) and all chromophyte algae (other dinoflagellates, chromeroids, ochrophytes, haptophytes, cryptophytes). I discuss their origin, evolutionary diversification, and reasons for making chromists one kingdom despite highly divergent cytoskeletons and trophic modes, including improved explanations for periplastid/chloroplast protein targeting, derlin evolution, and ciliary/cytoskeletal diversification. I conjecture that transit-peptide-receptor-mediated 'endocytosis' from periplastid membranes generates periplastid vesicles that fuse with the arguably derlin-translocon-containing periplastid reticulum (putative red algal trans-Golgi network homologue; present in all chromophytes except dinoflagellates). I explain chromist origin from ancestral corticates and neokaryotes, reappraising tertiary symbiogenesis; a chromist cytoskeletal synapomorphy, a bypassing microtubule band dextral to both centrioles, favoured multiple axopodial origins. I revise chromist higher classification by transferring rhizarian subphylum Endomyxa from Cercozoa to Retaria; establishing retarian subphylum Ectoreta for Foraminifera plus Radiozoa, apicomonad subclasses, new dinozoan classes Myzodinea (grouping Colpovora gen. n., Psammosa), Endodinea, Sulcodinea, and subclass Karlodinia; and ranking heterokont Gyrista as phylum not superphylum.
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7
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Sayers CP, Mollard V, Buchanan HD, McFadden GI, Goodman CD. A genetic screen in rodent malaria parasites identifies five new apicoplast putative membrane transporters, one of which is essential in human malaria parasites. Cell Microbiol 2017; 20. [DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Revised: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Claire P. Sayers
- School of BioSciences University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Vanessa Mollard
- School of BioSciences University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Hayley D. Buchanan
- School of BioSciences University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
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8
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Sharma D, Soni R, Rai P, Sharma B, Bhatt TK. Relict plastidic metabolic process as a potential therapeutic target. Drug Discov Today 2017; 23:134-140. [PMID: 28987288 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2017.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Revised: 09/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The alignment of the evolutionary history of parasites with that of plants provides a different panorama in the drug development process. The housing of different metabolic processes, essential for parasite survival, adds to the indispensability of the apicoplast. The different pathways responsible for fueling the apicoplast and parasite offer a myriad of proteins responsible for the apicoplast function. The studies emphasizing the target-based approaches might help in the discovery of antimalarials. The different putative drug targets and their roles are highlighted. In addition, the origin of the apicoplast and metabolic processes are reviewed and the different drugs acting upon the enzymes of the apicoplast are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drista Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Rani Soni
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Praveen Rai
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Bhaskar Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Tarun Kumar Bhatt
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India.
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9
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Chaudhari R, Dey V, Narayan A, Sharma S, Patankar S. Membrane and luminal proteins reach the apicoplast by different trafficking pathways in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3128. [PMID: 28462015 PMCID: PMC5410153 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The secretory pathway in Plasmodium falciparum has evolved to transport proteins to the host cell membrane and to an endosymbiotic organelle, the apicoplast. The latter can occur via the ER or the ER-Golgi route. Here, we study these three routes using proteins Erythrocyte Membrane Protein-1 (PfEMP1), Acyl Carrier Protein (ACP) and glutathione peroxidase-like thioredoxin peroxidase (PfTPxGl) and inhibitors of vesicular transport. As expected, the G protein-dependent vesicular fusion inhibitor AlF4− and microtubule destabilizing drug vinblastine block the trafficking of PfEMP-1, a protein secreted to the host cell membrane. However, while both PfTPxGl and ACP are targeted to the apicoplast, only ACP trafficking remains unaffected by these treatments. This implies that G protein-dependent vesicles do not play a role in classical apicoplast protein targeting. Unlike the soluble protein ACP, we show that PfTPxGl is localized to the outermost membrane of the apicoplast. Thus, the parasite apicoplast acquires proteins via two different pathways: first, the vesicular trafficking pathway appears to handle not only secretory proteins, but an apicoplast membrane protein, PfTPxGl; second, trafficking of apicoplast luminal proteins appear to be independent of G protein-coupled vesicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Chaudhari
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Vishakha Dey
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Aishwarya Narayan
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Shobhona Sharma
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Swati Patankar
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
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10
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Hughes KR, Waters AP. Rapid inducible protein displacement in Plasmodiumin vivo and in vitro using knocksideways technology. Wellcome Open Res 2017; 2:18. [PMID: 28428983 PMCID: PMC5395084 DOI: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.11005.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
A deeper understanding of the biology of the
Plasmodium parasite is essential in order to identify targets for interventions, with the ultimate aim of eliminating malaria. Determining the function(s) of essential proteins in
Plasmodium has, until recently, been hampered by the lack of efficient conditional systems to abrogate proteins. We report the adaptation of a conditional technology, knocksideways (KS), for use in
Plasmodium berghei, which can potentially rapidly inactivate proteins of interest through relocalisation. The system is induced using rapamycin, which allows for KS both
in vitro and
in vivo and is effective more rapidly than any other reported system. KS utilises pairs of fluorescent tags that facilitate live imaging and allows for rapid confirmation of efficient protein redistribution on live parasites, allowing for streamlined workflows. We demonstrate the characteristics of the system using transgenically expressed cytoplasmic GFP and provide proof of principle by inducibly redistributing a number of proteins with different native, subcellular locations. We also demonstrate that KS can be applied to both mammalian and insect stages of
Plasmodium. KS expands the range of (conditional) technologies for genetic manipulation of malaria parasites and offers the potential to be further developed for medium throughput phenotype screens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie R Hughes
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Andy P Waters
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
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11
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Liu X, Hempel F, Stork S, Bolte K, Moog D, Heimerl T, Maier UG, Zauner S. Addressing various compartments of the diatom model organism Phaeodactylum tricornutum via sub-cellular marker proteins. ALGAL RES 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2016.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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12
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McFadden GI, Yeh E. The apicoplast: now you see it, now you don't. Int J Parasitol 2016; 47:137-144. [PMID: 27773518 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2016.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Revised: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Parasites such as Plasmodium and Toxoplasma possess a vestigial plastid homologous to the chloroplasts of algae and plants. The plastid (known as the apicoplast; for apicomplexan plastid) is non-photosynthetic and very much reduced, but has clear endosymbiotic ancestry including a circular genome that encodes RNAs and proteins and a suite of bacterial biosynthetic pathways. Here we review the initial discovery of the apicoplast, and recount the major new insights into apicoplast origin, biogenesis and function. We conclude by examining how the apicoplast can be removed from malaria parasites in vitro, ultimately completing its reduction by chemical supplementation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ellen Yeh
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford Medical School, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Pathology, Stanford Medical School, Stanford, CA, USA
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13
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Correction: Targeting of a Transporter to the Outer Apicoplast Membrane in the Human Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0161420. [PMID: 27548067 PMCID: PMC4993501 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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