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Van Lanen NJ, Monroe AP, Aldridge CL. Living on the edge: Predicting songbird response to management and environmental changes across an ecotone. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10648. [PMID: 38020705 PMCID: PMC10646169 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Effective wildlife management requires robust information regarding population status, habitat requirements, and likely responses to changing resource conditions. Single-species management may inadequately conserve communities and result in undesired effects to non-target species. Thus, management can benefit from understanding habitat relationships for multiple species. Pinyon pine and juniper (Pinus spp. and Juniperus spp.) are expanding into sagebrush-dominated (Artemisia spp.) ecosystems within North America and mechanical removal of these trees is frequently conducted to restore sagebrush ecosystems and recover Greater Sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus). However, pinyon-juniper removal effects on non-target species are poorly understood, and changing pinyon-juniper woodland dynamics, climate, and anthropogenic development may obscure conservation priorities. To better predict responses to changing resource conditions, evaluate non-target effects of pinyon-juniper removal, prioritize species for conservation, and inform species recovery within pinyon-juniper and sagebrush ecosystems, we modeled population trends and density-habitat relationships for four sagebrush-associated, four pinyon-juniper-associated, and three generalist songbird species with respect to these ecosystems. We fit hierarchical population models to point count data collected throughout the western United States from 2008 to 2020. We found regional population changes for 10 of 11 species investigated; 6 of which increased in the highest elevation region of our study. Our models indicate pinyon-juniper removal will benefit Brewer's Sparrow (Spizella breweri), Green-tailed Towhee (Pipilo chlorurus), and Sage Thrasher (Oreoscoptes montanus) densities. Conversely, we predict largest negative effects of pinyon-juniper removal for species occupying early successional pinyon-juniper woodlands: Bewick's Wren (Thryomanes bewickii), Black-throated Gray Warblers (Setophaga nigrescens), Gray Flycatcher (Empidonax wrightii), and Juniper Titmouse (Baeolophus ridgwayi). Our results highlight the importance of considering effects to non-target species before implementing large-scale habitat manipulations. Our modeling framework can help prioritize species and regions for conservation action, infer effects of management interventions and a changing environment on wildlife, and help land managers balance habitat requirements across ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J. Van Lanen
- U.S. Geological Survey, Fort Collins Science CenterFort CollinsColoradoUSA
- Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, Colorado State UniversityFort CollinsColoradoUSA
- Bird Conservancy of the RockiesBrightonColoradoUSA
| | - Adrian P. Monroe
- U.S. Geological Survey, Fort Collins Science CenterFort CollinsColoradoUSA
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2
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Young AC, Katzner TE, Shinneman DJ, Johnson TN. Implications of tree expansion in shrubland ecosystems for two generalist avian predators. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0286478. [PMID: 37267264 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0286478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Shrublands globally have undergone structural changes due to plant invasions, including the expansion of native trees. Removal of native conifer trees, especially juniper (Juniperus spp.), is occurring across the Great Basin of the western U.S. to support declining sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) habitats and associated wildlife species, such as greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus). One justification for conifer removal is that it may improve survival of sagebrush-associated wildlife by reducing the abundance of avian predators. However, the relationship between conifer expansion and predator distributions has not been explicitly evaluated. Further, although structural characteristics of habitat are important for generalist predators, overall prey abundance may also affect habitat use by predators. We examined habitat use of common ravens (Corvus corax) and red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), two generalist predators whose populations are increasing in western North America, to variation in structural characteristics and prey distributions in sagebrush habitat that has experienced conifer expansion. Structural characteristics of habitat were important predictors of habitat use for both ravens and red-tailed hawks, whereas measures of prey abundance were unimportant for both species likely because generalist predators can use a wide variety of food resources. Ravens, but not red-tailed hawks, responded positively to increasing cover of juniper and the probability of habitat use was highest (> 0.95) where juniper cover within 100 m was > 20%. Habitat use by red-tailed hawks, but not ravens, was greater near cliffs but was not associated with juniper cover. Our study suggests that the removal of conifer in similar environments may lower the probability of habitat use for ravens, a common predator with significant impacts on many prey species. Therefore, we suggest conifer removal may improve sage-grouse reproductive success and survival depending on responses to conifer removal from other predators. Our results may be reflective of similar changes in rangeland ecosystems around the world undergoing expansion of conifer and other woody vegetation. Though species identities differ from sagebrush habitats, generalist avian predators in other habitats may have similar relationships with structural resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Young
- Department of Fish & Wildlife Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, United States of America
| | - T E Katzner
- U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, Boise, ID, United States of America
| | - D J Shinneman
- U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, Boise, ID, United States of America
| | - T N Johnson
- Department of Fish & Wildlife Sciences, University of Idaho, Boise, Idaho, United States of America
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3
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Malone KM, Terhune TM, Sieving KE. Demographic response of Northern Bobwhite to hardwood canopy management in pine savanna. Ecosphere 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.4055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kristen M. Malone
- Game Bird Program Tall Timbers Tallahassee Florida USA
- Department of Wildlife Ecology & Conservation University of Florida Gainesville Florida USA
| | | | - Kathryn E. Sieving
- Department of Wildlife Ecology & Conservation University of Florida Gainesville Florida USA
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4
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Balancing model generality and specificity in management-focused habitat selection models for Gunnison sage-grouse. Glob Ecol Conserv 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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5
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OLSEN ANDREWC, SEVERSON JOHNP, ALLRED BRADYW, JONES MATTHEWO, MAESTAS JEREMYD, NAUGLE DAVIDE, YATES KATEH, HAGEN CHRISTIANA. Reversing Tree Encroachment Increases Usable Space for Sage‐Grouse during the Breeding Season. WILDLIFE SOC B 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.1214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - JEREMY D. MAESTAS
- Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1201 NE Lloyd Blvd. Suite 801 Portland OR USA
| | | | - KATE H. YATES
- Bureau of Land Management, 1301 S G Street Lakeview OR USA
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6
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Olsen AC, Severson JP, Maestas JD, Naugle DE, Smith JT, Tack JD, Yates KH, Hagen CA. Reversing tree expansion in sagebrush steppe yields population‐level benefit for imperiled grouse. Ecosphere 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C. Olsen
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Oregon State University Corvallis Oregon97331USA
| | - John P. Severson
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences University of Idaho Moscow Idaho83844USA
| | - Jeremy D. Maestas
- West National Technology Support Center Natural Resources Conservation Service Portland Oregon97232USA
| | - David E. Naugle
- Wildlife Biology Program University of Montana Missoula Montana59812USA
| | - Joseph T. Smith
- Numerical Terradynamic Simulation Group University of Montana Missoula Montana59812USA
| | - Jason D. Tack
- Habitat and Population Evaluation Team United States Fish and Wildlife Service Missoula Montana59812USA
| | - Kate H. Yates
- Lakeview District, Bureau of Land Management Lakeview Oregon97630USA
| | - Christian A. Hagen
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Oregon State University Corvallis Oregon97331USA
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7
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Gaynor KM, Cherry MJ, Gilbert SL, Kohl MT, Larson CL, Newsome TM, Prugh LR, Suraci JP, Young JK, Smith JA. An applied ecology of fear framework: linking theory to conservation practice. Anim Conserv 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn M. Gaynor
- National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis University of California, Santa Barbara Santa Barbara CA USA
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management University of California, Berkeley Berkeley CA USA
| | - Michael J. Cherry
- Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute Texas A&M University‐Kingsville Kingsville Texas USA
| | - Sophie L. Gilbert
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences University of Idaho Moscow Idaho USA
| | - Michel T. Kohl
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources University of Georgia Athens Georgia USA
| | | | - Thomas M. Newsome
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Sydney Sydney NSW Australia
| | - Laura R. Prugh
- School of Environmental and Forest Sciences University of Washington Seattle WA USA
| | - Justin P. Suraci
- Center for Integrated Spatial Research Environmental Studies Department University of California Santa Cruz CA USA
| | - Julie K. Young
- Predator Research Facility USDA‐National Wildlife Research Center Millville Utah USA
| | - Justine A. Smith
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management University of California, Berkeley Berkeley CA USA
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology University of California, Davis Davis CA USA
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8
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Smith JT, Allred BW, Boyd CS, Carlson JC, Davies KW, Hagen CA, Naugle DE, Olsen AC, Tack JD. Are Sage‐Grouse Fine‐Scale Specialists or Shrub‐Steppe Generalists? J Wildl Manage 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph T. Smith
- Wildlife Biology ProgramUniversity of Montana Missoula MT 59812 USA
| | - Brady W. Allred
- College of Forestry and ConservationUniversity of Montana Missoula MT 59812 USA
| | - Chad S. Boyd
- U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research ServiceEastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center Burns OR 97720 USA
| | - John C. Carlson
- U.S. Department of Interior Bureau of Land Management Billings MT 59101 USA
| | - Kirk W. Davies
- U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research ServiceEastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center Burns OR 97720 USA
| | - Christian A. Hagen
- Department of Fisheries and WildlifeOregon State University Corvallis OR 97331 USA
| | - David E. Naugle
- Wildlife Biology ProgramUniversity of Montana Missoula MT 59812 USA
| | - Andrew C. Olsen
- Department of Fisheries and WildlifeOregon State University Corvallis OR 97331 USA
| | - Jason D. Tack
- U.S. Department of Interior Fish and Wildlife ServiceHabitat and Population Evaluation Team Missoula MT 59812 USA
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9
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Coates PS, Brussee BE, Ricca MA, Severson JP, Casazza ML, Gustafson KB, Espinosa SP, Gardner SC, Delehanty DJ. Spatially explicit models of seasonal habitat for greater sage-grouse at broad spatial scales: Informing areas for management in Nevada and northeastern California. Ecol Evol 2020. [PMID: 31993115 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5842.] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Defining boundaries of species' habitat across broad spatial scales is often necessary for management decisions, and yet challenging for species that demonstrate differential variation in seasonal habitat use. Spatially explicit indices that incorporate temporal shifts in selection can help overcome such challenges, especially for species of high conservation concern. Greater sage-grouse Centrocercus urophasianus (hereafter, sage-grouse), a sagebrush obligate species inhabiting the American West, represents an important case study because sage-grouse exhibit seasonal habitat patterns, populations are declining in most portions of their range and are central to contemporary national land use policies. Here, we modeled spatiotemporal selection patterns for telemetered sage-grouse across multiple study sites (1,084 sage-grouse; 30,690 locations) in the Great Basin. We developed broad-scale spatially explicit habitat indices that elucidated space use patterns (spring, summer/fall, and winter) and accounted for regional climatic variation using previously published hydrographic boundaries. We then evaluated differences in selection/avoidance of each habitat characteristic between seasons and hydrographic regions. Most notably, sage-grouse consistently selected areas dominated by sagebrush with few or no conifers but varied in type of sagebrush selected by season and region. Spatiotemporal variation was most apparent based on availability of water resources and herbaceous cover, where sage-grouse strongly selected upland natural springs in xeric regions but selected larger wet meadows in mesic regions. Additionally, during the breeding period in spring, herbaceous cover was selected strongly in the mesic regions. Lastly, we expanded upon an existing joint-index framework by combining seasonal habitat indices with a probabilistic index of sage-grouse abundance and space use to produce habitat maps useful for sage-grouse management. These products can serve as conservation planning tools that help predict expected benefits of restoration activities, while highlighting areas most critical to sustaining sage-grouse populations. Our joint-index framework can be applied to other species that exhibit seasonal shifts in habitat requirements to help better guide conservation actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter S Coates
- Western Ecological Research Center U.S. Geological Survey Dixon CA USA
| | - Brianne E Brussee
- Western Ecological Research Center U.S. Geological Survey Dixon CA USA
| | - Mark A Ricca
- Western Ecological Research Center U.S. Geological Survey Dixon CA USA
| | - John P Severson
- Western Ecological Research Center U.S. Geological Survey Dixon CA USA
| | - Michael L Casazza
- Western Ecological Research Center U.S. Geological Survey Dixon CA USA
| | | | | | - Scott C Gardner
- California Department of Fish and Wildlife Sacramento CA USA
| | - David J Delehanty
- Department of Biological Sciences Idaho State University Pocatello ID USA
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10
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Ricca MA, Coates PS. Integrating Ecosystem Resilience and Resistance Into Decision Support Tools for Multi-Scale Population Management of a Sagebrush Indicator Species. Front Ecol Evol 2020. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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11
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Coates PS, Brussee BE, Ricca MA, Severson JP, Casazza ML, Gustafson KB, Espinosa SP, Gardner SC, Delehanty DJ. Spatially explicit models of seasonal habitat for greater sage-grouse at broad spatial scales: Informing areas for management in Nevada and northeastern California. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:104-118. [PMID: 31993115 PMCID: PMC6972839 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Defining boundaries of species' habitat across broad spatial scales is often necessary for management decisions, and yet challenging for species that demonstrate differential variation in seasonal habitat use. Spatially explicit indices that incorporate temporal shifts in selection can help overcome such challenges, especially for species of high conservation concern. Greater sage-grouse Centrocercus urophasianus (hereafter, sage-grouse), a sagebrush obligate species inhabiting the American West, represents an important case study because sage-grouse exhibit seasonal habitat patterns, populations are declining in most portions of their range and are central to contemporary national land use policies. Here, we modeled spatiotemporal selection patterns for telemetered sage-grouse across multiple study sites (1,084 sage-grouse; 30,690 locations) in the Great Basin. We developed broad-scale spatially explicit habitat indices that elucidated space use patterns (spring, summer/fall, and winter) and accounted for regional climatic variation using previously published hydrographic boundaries. We then evaluated differences in selection/avoidance of each habitat characteristic between seasons and hydrographic regions. Most notably, sage-grouse consistently selected areas dominated by sagebrush with few or no conifers but varied in type of sagebrush selected by season and region. Spatiotemporal variation was most apparent based on availability of water resources and herbaceous cover, where sage-grouse strongly selected upland natural springs in xeric regions but selected larger wet meadows in mesic regions. Additionally, during the breeding period in spring, herbaceous cover was selected strongly in the mesic regions. Lastly, we expanded upon an existing joint-index framework by combining seasonal habitat indices with a probabilistic index of sage-grouse abundance and space use to produce habitat maps useful for sage-grouse management. These products can serve as conservation planning tools that help predict expected benefits of restoration activities, while highlighting areas most critical to sustaining sage-grouse populations. Our joint-index framework can be applied to other species that exhibit seasonal shifts in habitat requirements to help better guide conservation actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter S. Coates
- Western Ecological Research CenterU.S. Geological SurveyDixonCAUSA
| | | | - Mark A. Ricca
- Western Ecological Research CenterU.S. Geological SurveyDixonCAUSA
| | - John P. Severson
- Western Ecological Research CenterU.S. Geological SurveyDixonCAUSA
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12
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Naugle DE, Allred BW, Jones MO, Twidwell D, Maestas JD. Coproducing Science to Inform Working Lands: The Next Frontier in Nature Conservation. Bioscience 2020; 70:90-96. [PMID: 31949318 PMCID: PMC6956880 DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biz144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Conservationists are increasingly convinced that coproduction of science enhances its utility in policy, decision-making, and practice. Concomitant is a renewed reliance on privately owned working lands to sustain nature and people. We propose a coupling of these emerging trends as a better recipe for conservation. To illustrate this, we present five elements of coproduction, contrast how they differ from traditional approaches, and describe the role of scientists in successful partnerships. Readers will find coproduction more demanding than the loading dock approach to science delivery but will also find greater rewards, relevance, and impact. Because coproduction is novel and examples of it are rare, we draw on our roles as scientists within the US Department of Agriculture–led Sage Grouse Initiative, North America's largest effort to conserve the sagebrush ecosystem. As coproduction and working lands evolve, traditional approaches will be replaced in order to more holistically meet the needs of nature and people.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E Naugle
- Wildlife biology, the University of Montana (UM), Missoula, and is the national science advisor for Working Lands for Wildlife, part of the USDA's Natural Resources Conservation Service. Also at UM
| | - Brady W Allred
- Rangeland Analysis Platform in the W. A. Franke College of Forestry and Conservation
| | | | - Dirac Twidwell
- Rangeland resiliency, Center for Resilience in Agricultural Working Lands and the Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, the University of Nebraska, Lincoln
| | - Jeremy D Maestas
- Sagebrush ecosystem specialist with the Natural Resources Conservation Service, Portland, Oregon
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13
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Maestas JD, Hagen CA, Smith JT, Tack JD, Allred BW, Griffiths T, Bishop CJ, Stewart KM, Naugle DE. Mule deer juniper use is an unreliable indicator of habitat quality: Comments on Coe et al. (2018). J Wildl Manage 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy D. Maestas
- USDA Natural Resources Conservation ServiceWest National Technology Support Center1201 NE Lloyd Blvd, Suite 801PortlandOR97232USA
| | - Christian A. Hagen
- Department of Fish and WildlifeOregon State University497 Century Drive, Suite 105BendOR97702USA
| | - Joseph T. Smith
- Wildlife Biology ProgramUniversity of Montana32 Campus DriveMissoulaMT59812USA
| | - Jason D. Tack
- US Fish & Wildlife Service, Habitat and Population Evaluation Team32 Campus DriveMissoulaMT59812USA
| | - Brady W. Allred
- W.A. Franke College of Forestry and ConservationUniversity of Montana32 Campus DriveMissoulaMT59812USA
| | - Tim Griffiths
- USDA Natural Resources Conservation ServiceWorking Lands For Wildlife10 E Babcock Street, Number 443BozemanMT59715USA
| | - Chad J. Bishop
- Wildlife Biology ProgramUniversity of Montana32 Campus DriveMissoulaMT59812USA
| | - Kelley M. Stewart
- Natural Resources and Environmental ScienceUniversity of Nevada, Reno1664N. Virginia St, Mail Stop 186RenoNV89557USA
| | - David E. Naugle
- Wildlife Biology ProgramUniversity of Montana32 Campus DriveMissoulaMT59812USA
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14
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Doherty KE, Hennig JD, Dinkins JB, Griffin KA, Cook AA, Maestas JD, Naugle DE, Beck JL. Understanding biological effectiveness before scaling up range-wide restoration investments for Gunnison sage-grouse. Ecosphere 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jacob D. Hennig
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Management; University of Wyoming; Laramie Wyoming 82071 USA
| | - Jonathan B. Dinkins
- Department of Animal and Rangeland Sciences; Oregon State University; Corvallis Oregon 97331 USA
| | | | - Avery A. Cook
- Utah Division of Wildlife Resources; Salt Lake City Utah 84116 USA
| | - Jeremy D. Maestas
- Natural Resources Conservation Service; West National Technology Support Center; Portland Oregon 97232 USA
| | - David E. Naugle
- Wildlife Biology Program; University of Montana; Missoula Montana 59812 USA
| | - Jeffrey L. Beck
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Management; University of Wyoming; Laramie Wyoming 82071 USA
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Reinhardt JR, Naugle DE, Maestas JD, Allred B, Evans J, Falkowski M. Next‐generation restoration for sage‐grouse: a framework for visualizing local conifer cuts within a landscape context. Ecosphere 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.1888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jason R. Reinhardt
- Department of Forest Resources University of Minnesota Minneapolis Minnesota 55108 USA
| | - David E. Naugle
- Wildlife Biology Program University of Montana Missoula Montana 59812 USA
| | | | - Brady Allred
- College of Forestry and Conservation University of Montana Missoula Montana 59812 USA
| | | | - Michael Falkowski
- Department of Forest Resources University of Minnesota Minneapolis Minnesota 55108 USA
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Sustainability Colorado State University Colorado 80523 USA
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