The role of physique, strength and endurance in the achievements of elite climbers

Pull-Up Performance Is Affected Differently by the Muscle Contraction Regimens Practiced during Training among Climbers

Sport climbing performance is highly related to upper limb strength and endurance. Although finger-specific methods are widely analyzed in the literature, no study has yet quantified the effects of arm-specific training. This study aims to compare the effects of three types of training involving different muscle contraction regimens on climbers' pull-up capabilities. Thirty advanced to high-elite climbers were randomly divided into four groups: eccentric (ECC; n = 8), isometric (ISO; n = 7), plyometric (PLYO; n = 6), and no specific training (CTRL; n = 9), and they participated in a 5-week training, twice a week, focusing on pull-ups on hangboard. Pre- and post-training assessments were conducted using a force-sensing hangboard, analyzing force, velocity, power, and muscle work during three pull-up exercises: pull-ups at body weight under different conditions, incremental weighted pull-ups, and an exhaustion test. The CTRL group showed no change. Maximum strength improved in all three training groups (from +2.2 ± 3.6% to +5.0 ± 2.4%; p < 0.001); velocity variables enhanced in the ECC and PLYO groups (from +5.7 ± 7.4 to +28.7 ± 42%; p < 0.05), resulting in greater power; amplitude increased in the ECC group; and muscle work increased in the PLYO group (+21.9 ± 16.6%; p = 0.015). A 5-week training period effectively enhanced arm performance, but outcomes were influenced by the chosen muscle contraction regimens and initial individual characteristics.

Low-intensity climbing with blood flow restriction over 5 weeks increases grip and elbow flexor endurance in advanced climbers: A randomized controlled trial

Grip and elbow flexor strength and endurance are crucial performance surrogates in competitive climbing. Thus, we examined the effects of blood flow restricted (BFR) climbing on grip and elbow flexor performance. Fifteen trained climbers (8 females; 20.8 ± 7.0 yrs; 1.72 ± 0.08 m; 63.0 ± 9.7 kg; 21.7 ± 2.7 IRCRCA grade) were either assigned to the intervention (BFR) or control (noBFR) group, using the minimization method (Strata: age, height, body mass, gender, and IRCRA grade). While BFR was used during low-intensity climbing training (2-times 10 min/session; 3-times/week), noBFR followed identical training protocols without BFR over 5 weeks. BFR of the upper limb was applied via customized pneumatic cuffs (occlusion pressure: 120 ± 23 mmHg, 75%; occlusion pressure). Endurance and strength performances were assessed via one-handed rung pulling (GripSTRENGTH), one-handed bent arm lock off at 90° (ArmSTRENGTH), static-intermitted finger hang (GripENDURANCE), and bent arm hang (ArmENDURANCE). Bayesian credible intervals revealed increased GripENDURANCE (+21 s (95% credible interval: -2 to 43 s)) and ArmENDURANCE +11 s (-5 to 27 s); adaptations via BFR. In contrast, GripSTRENGTH +4 N (-40 to 48 N) and ArmSTRENGTH +4 N (-68 to 75 N) were not affected by the BFR intervention. Fifteen cumulative sessions of BFR application with a cumulative total BFR load of 5 h over a 5 weeks macrocycle remarkably increased grip and elbow flexor endurance. Thus, BFR might serve as a promising means to improve relevant performance surrogates in trained climbers.

Physical performance testing in climbing-A systematic review

Due to the increasing popularity of climbing, the corresponding diagnostics are gaining in importance for both science and practice. This review aims to give an overview of the quality of different diagnostic testing- and measurement methods for performance, strength, endurance, and flexibility in climbing. A systematic literature search for studies including quantitative methods and tests for measuring different forms of strength, endurance, flexibility, or performance in climbing and bouldering was conducted on PubMed and SPORT Discus. Studies and abstracts were included if they a) worked with a representative sample of human boulderers and/or climbers, b) included detailed information on at least one test, and c) were randomized-controlled-, cohort-, cross-over-, intervention-, or case studies. 156 studies were included into the review. Data regarding subject characteristics, as well as the implementation and quality of all relevant tests were extracted from the studies. Tests with similar exercises were grouped and the information on a) measured value, b) unit, c) subject characteristics (sex and ability level), and d) quality criteria (objectivity, reliability, validity) were bundled and displayed in standardized tables. In total, 63 different tests were identified, of which some comprised different ways of implementation. This clearly shows that there are no uniform or standard procedures in climbing diagnostics, for tests on strength, endurance or flexibility. Furthermore, only few studies report data on test quality and detailed information on sample characteristics. This not only makes it difficult to compare test results, but at the same time makes it impossible to give precise test recommendations. Nevertheless, this overview of the current state of research contributes to the creation of more uniform test batteries in the future.

Body Composition, Anthropometric Parameters, and Strength-Endurance Characteristics of Sport Climbers: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACT

Ginszt, M, Saito, M, Zięba, E, Majcher, P, and Kikuchi, N. Body composition, anthropometric parameters, and strength-endurance characteristics of sport climbers: a systematic review. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2023-Sport climbing was selected to be part of the Summer Olympic Games in Tokyo 2021 with 3 subdisciplines: lead climbing, speed climbing, and bouldering. The nature of physical effort while speed climbing, lead climbing, and bouldering performance is different. This literature review aimed to describe differences between body composition, anthropometric parameters, and upper-limb strength-endurance variables between sport climbers with different ability levels and nonclimbers. The following databases were searched: PubMed and Scopus. The following keywords were used: "sport climbing," "rock climbing," "lead climbing," and "bouldering." Articles were considered from January 2000 to October 2021 if they concerned at least one of the following parameters: body composition (mass, body mass index, body fat, lean muscle mass, bone mineral density), anthropometric parameters (height, ape index), muscle strength (MVC finger strength in half-crimp grip, MVC finger strength to body mass, handgrip strength), and muscle endurance (force time integral, pull-ups). A review shows that body mass and body fat content were lower in the sport climbers compared with controls and in elite sport climbers compared with those less advanced. Sport climbers presented higher values of MVC finger strength in half-crimp grip, MVC finger strength to body mass, handgrip strength, and force time integral parameter than control subjects. Significantly higher MVC values in half-crimp grip were observed in elite sport climbers than in advanced athletes. None of the analyzed work showed differences between sport climber groups in the ape index. The abovementioned parameters may be a key factor in elite sport climbing performance.

Optimization of an Intermittent Finger Endurance Test for Climbers Regarding Gender and Deviation in Force and Pulling Time

Performance diagnostics of finger strength is very relevant in climbing. The aim of our study was to find modalities for an intermittent finger flexor muscle endurance test that optimize the correlation of test performance with lead climbing performance. Twenty-seven female and 25 male climbers pulled with 60% MVC and a work-to-rest ratio of 7:2 s on a fingerboard until fatigue. The highest correlations, R = 0.429, were found for women when 9% deviation in the required force and 1 s deviation in the required pulling time was tolerated. For men, the optimum was reached with the same time deviation and a force deviation of 6%, R = 0.691. Together with maximum finger strength the repetitions explained 31.5% of the variance of climbing ability in women and 46.3% in men. Consequences from our results are to tolerate at least 7% force deviation for women and 5% for men and to terminate the finger endurance test quickly after the force falls below the threshold.

Female excellence in rock climbing likely has an evolutionary origin

The human body is exceptional for many reasons, not the least of which is the wide variety of movements it is capable of executing. Because our species is able to execute so many discrete activities, researchers often disagree on which were the movements most essential to the evolution of our species. This paper continues a recently introduced analysis, that the performance gap between female and male athletes narrows in sports which most reflect the movements humans evolved to do. Here, I examine the performance gap in rock climbing. Female climbers are some of the best in the world irrespective of gender, a trend that is not found in any other major sport. I conclude that the exceptional ability of female rock climbers relative to male rock climbers is further evidence of the existence of sex-blind musculoskeletal adaptations, which developed over the course of human evolution – as a result of external (non-sexual) selection forces – to facilitate essential movements. These adaptations abate some of the general physical sexual dimorphism which exists in humans. This paper provides more evidence that the human body was shaped, in part, by pressure to climb well.

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Rock climbing is the sport most similar to tree climbing, a movement essential to human development.

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Multiple women can be found in the list of top 100 rock climbers, a trend not found in any other major sport.

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Sports with a higher degree of gender equity, may reflect movements with a greater degree of evolutionary importance.

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Rock climbing’s gender gap provides further evidence that early humans faced external selection pressure to climb well.

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Thus, the importance of climbing to the survival of humans - even after the onset of genus Homo - may be understated.

Muscle strength and endurance in high-level rock climbers

The relative importance of key performance factors is poorly studied in high-level climbers. This study aimed to (1) determine the role of forearm muscle strength and endurance in high-level rock climbing, (2) and provide suitable dynamometric test parameters for muscle endurance assessment in high-level climbers. Six higher elite (redpoint Fr.9a) and eight elite/advanced (redpoint Fr.8a+) climbers performed one finger flexor maximal strength test and three finger endurance tests: a 30 s all-out test and a continuous and intermittent test at 60% of maximal voluntary contraction. Higher elite climbers had higher (p < 0.05) maximal strength, all-out test average force and continuous test force-time integral (all relative to body mass) than the elite/advanced climbers. These parameters correlated significantly (p < 0.05) with climbing performance, which has not been observed so far for continuous test scores. Unlike in previous research, intermittent test force-time integral neither distinguished climbing ability groups nor correlated significantly with climbing performance. Nevertheless, regression models comprising of intermittent and maximal strength test scores more strongly determined climbing performance than models including continuous or all-out test scores. Intermittent muscle endurance is among the performance factors in difficult rock climbing but appears to be less important than maintaining high forces during sustained muscle contractions.

The Physical Parameters of Tactical Climbing and Performance Characteristics of Naval Special Warfare Operators

ABSTRACT

Wood, DE and Swain, DP. The physical parameters of tactical climbing and performance characteristics of naval special warfare operators. J Strength Cond Res 35(4): 949-954, 2021-Vertical elevation may be critical for advantage to Special Operation Forces and require strength, power, endurance, and technique. This study sought to (a) study differences in physical capacities of Naval Special Warfare lead climbers from nonlead climbers, (b) compare anthropometrics of lead climbers from nonlead climbers, and (c) catalogue the types and weights of the various climbing systems to assess total system weight to the lead climber's body mass. Climbing surveys were collected and retrospective physical capacity data from 15 SEa, Air and Land lead climbers (age: 31.2 ± 5.1 years; height: 181.4 ± 6.4 cm; mass: 89.4 ± 10.0 kg; body fat: 14.1 ± 3.7%) were compared against previously reported data of 305 nonlead climbers (age: 28.8 ± 5.2 years; height: 177.6 ± 12.0 cm; mass: 85.8 ± 9.7 kg; body fat: 17.3 ± 4.7%). Lead climbers had significantly less body fat percentage (p = 0.017). Lead climbers also performed significantly better on the pro-agility test (p = 0.017) and deadlift (p = 0.002). The total mass reported for the climbing equipment for each tactical scenario was up to 4.9 kg for urban climbing, up to 13.7 kg for alpine climbing, and up to 8.0 kg for maritime climbing. With a typical combat load of 21.4 kg, adding an alpine climbing load exceeds one-third of the lead climbers' own body mass. Strength and conditioning programming for this population should take into consideration the total system weight for testing and training purposes and should also consider climbing-specific strength testing and training to optimize climbing capability.

Comparison of Grip Strength in Recreational Climbers and Non-Climbing Athletes-A Cross-Sectional Study

In recent years, climbing sports is on the rise making its Olympic debut in 2021. Physiological traits of professional rock climbers have been intensively studied, while recreational indoor climbers are less investigated, especially regarding grip strength and upper extremity proportions. In this cross-sectional study, we aimed to understand what discerns the recreational climber from disparate recreational athletes. Therefore, we analyzed 50 recreational climbing (30.3 ± 12.7 years, 1.76 ± 0.09 m and 67.0 ± 14.0 kg) and 50 non-climbing athletes (26.4 ± 9.1 years, 1.78 ± 0.09 m and 73.2 ± 12.6 kg) to detect differences in their finger grip strength of seven different pinches. In addition, the upper extremity proportions were measured. Even in recreational climbers, almost all analyzed grips were stronger compared to other athletes (p < 0.05 in all but non-dominant fist, small to moderate effect sizes). Only the grip strength of the whole non-dominant hand was not significantly different (p = 0.17). Interestingly, differences between the dominant and non-dominant hand appeared to be larger in the non-climbing (all p < 0.05, all but one with small effect size) compared to the climbing cohort (pinch I/IV and pinch I/II+III+IV not different and mostly trivial). Circumference measurements showed that 10 cm below the lateral epicondyle, climbers exhibited significantly greater perimeter compared to non-climbing athletes (p < 0.05, small effect size). Our results show that recreational climbers have higher measured grip strength, but less profound differences between the dominant and non-dominant hand.

Force-Velocity-Power Profile in High-Elite Boulder, Lead, and Speed Climber Competitors

PURPOSE

To compare the force-production capacities among boulderers, lead climbers, and speed climbers during a pull-up test using a force-velocity-power profile.

METHODS

In total, 24 high-elite climbers (11 boulderers, 8 lead climbers, and 5 speed climbers) did 2 pull-ups at different percentages of their body mass (0%, 30%, 45%, 60%, and 70%). Force-velocity-power profile analyses were performed with the use of an accelerometer for each load. The intraclass correlation and coefficients of variation were calculated. A 1-way analysis of variance was performed with a Tukey post hoc test to assess the difference between the groups.

RESULTS

Regarding force, the coefficient of variation ranged from 1.00% to 6.18% and the intraclass correlation ranged from .98 to .99. For velocity, the coefficient of variation ranged from 2.75% to 6.62% and the intraclass correlation ranged from .84 to .95. The linear regression slope showed R2 to be between .93 and .99, confirming the high quality of the linear relationship between velocity and the external force produced during a pull-up. Boulderers presented significantly higher (P < .05) maximal power (+22.30% and +26.29%), mean power for the pull-up at body weight (+23.49% and +25.35%), and theoretical maximal velocity at zero force (+23.92% and +21.53%) than lead and speed climbers and a more significant curve increase (+35.21% compared with lead climbers).

CONCLUSIONS

The reliability of the method was shown to be high. Moreover, boulderers were able to develop an important external force and had the capacity to maintain high speed when force production increased.

Importance and Diagnosis of Flexibility Preparation of Male Sport Climbers

The objective of the study was to verify the relationships between sport skill levels and to identify the tests that accurately diagnose flexibility of sport climbers. This study examined 60 competitive advanced–higher elite male 7b–9a redpoint (RP) climbers. The athletes performed commonly used flexibility tests (stand-and-reach, straddle sit, straddle stand) and climbing-specific flexibility tests. Significant correlations were found between sport skill levels for the straddle stand test (r = −0.48) and the straddle sit test (r = −0.41). No significant correlations were observed between climbing-specific flexibility tests and sports skill level of climbers. Hip abduction evaluated using the straddle sit and straddle stand tests were significantly correlated with sports skill level and thus can be approached as a tool to diagnose flexibility of climbers. Flexibility is very specific and difficult to diagnose in climbing, but it should be developed.

[Current state of the scientific literature on effects of therapeutic climbing on mental health - conclusion: a lot to do]

BACKGROUND

Therapeutic Climbing is applied in physiological as well as in psychological rehabilitation programs. Systematic reviews have been conducted, evaluating the physiological effects of therapeutic climbing. The aim of the following article is a review on existing literature about the psychological effects of climbing therapy.

METHODS

We searched the databases of PubMed, Scholar and ScienceDirect up to December 2017 in German and English language. Trials were included if they assessed psychological variables in climbing interventions.

RESULTS

Seven articles were included in the following review. Effectiveness of climbing therapy was studied in a) adult inpatients with mental disorders (n = 3), b) adult outpatients with mental disorders (n = 1), c) children with motoric deficits and disabilities (n = 2), d) healthy adults (n = 1). All trials had major methodological limitations. Control groups if present, were defined differently. Three trials assessed self-efficacy and revealed enhanced self-efficacy after the climbing intervention. No psychological differences were seen between aerobic exercise and climbing therapy in healthy adults. Acute positive affective changes were seen in in-patients with major depressive disorders after a climbing session compared to a relaxation session.

CONCLUSION

The effectiveness of climbing therapy on psychological outcomes remains unclear. Limited evidence with varying age groups (children and adults) and a high risk of bias shows enhanced self-efficacy through climbing therapy. There is a need for further studies in children and adults on psychological outcomes through climbing therapy, especially in comparison with aerobic activity interventions.

Lean and mean? Associations of level of performance, chronic injuries and BMI in sport climbing

Objectives

To assess possible associations between performance level (achieved level of difficulty), chronic injuries and body mass index (BMI) in sport climbing.

Method

Retrospective survey.

Setting

Web-based questionnaire.

Participants

667 active climbers (385 reported having chronic injuries).

Outcome measure

BMI, performance level in sport climbing, onset of a climbing-related injury, preferred style of climbing, education, gender.

Statistics

Descriptive statistics and general linear model(GLM) performed with SPSS V.25 for windows.

Result

No associations were found between level of performance in sport climbing, onset of a climbing-related injury, preferred style of climbing, education, gender and BMI.

Conclusion

BMI is not associated with climbing-related chronic injury or level of performance in climbing. The average BMI of climbers up to the elite level is similar to that of a lower rate of performance.

Clinical relevance

The findings in this study suggest that there is no need for maintaining a low BMI to be able to reach elite levels in climbing.