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Palomino-Cano C, Moreno E, Irache JM, Espuelas S. Targeting and activation of macrophages in leishmaniasis. A focus on iron oxide nanoparticles. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1437430. [PMID: 39211053 PMCID: PMC11357945 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1437430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 07/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Macrophages play a pivotal role as host cells for Leishmania parasites, displaying a notable functional adaptability ranging from the proinflammatory, leishmanicidal M1 phenotype to the anti-inflammatory, parasite-permissive M2 phenotype. While macrophages can potentially eradicate amastigotes through appropriate activation, Leishmania employs diverse strategies to thwart this activation and redirect macrophages toward an M2 phenotype, facilitating its survival and replication. Additionally, a competition for iron between the two entities exits, as iron is vital for both and is also implicated in macrophage defensive oxidative mechanisms and modulation of their phenotype. This review explores the intricate interplay between macrophages, Leishmania, and iron. We focus the attention on the potential of iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) as a sort of immunotherapy to treat some leishmaniasis forms by reprogramming Leishmania-permissive M2 macrophages into antimicrobial M1 macrophages. Through the specific targeting of iron in macrophages, the use of IONPs emerges as a promising strategy to finely tune the parasite-host interaction, endowing macrophages with an augmented antimicrobial arsenal capable of efficiently eliminating these intrusive microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Palomino-Cano
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Esther Moreno
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Juan M. Irache
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- Navarra Medical Research Institute (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Socorro Espuelas
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
- Navarra Medical Research Institute (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
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Moradimotlagh A, Chen S, Koohbor S, Moon KM, Foster LJ, Reiner N, Nandan D. Leishmania infection upregulates and engages host macrophage Argonaute 1, and system-wide proteomics reveals Argonaute 1-dependent host response. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1287539. [PMID: 38098491 PMCID: PMC10720368 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1287539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmania donovani, an intracellular protozoan parasite, is the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis, the most severe form of leishmaniasis in humans. It is becoming increasingly clear that several intracellular pathogens target host cell RNA interference (RNAi) pathways to promote their survival. Complexes of Argonaute proteins with small RNAs are core components of the RNAi. In this study, we investigated the potential role of host macrophage Argonautes in Leishmania pathogenesis. Using Western blot analysis of Leishmania donovani-infected macrophages, we show here that Leishmania infection selectively increased the abundance of host Argonaute 1 (Ago1). This increased abundance of Ago1 in infected cells also resulted in higher levels of Ago1 in active Ago-complexes, suggesting the preferred use of Ago1 in RNAi in Leishmania-infected cells. This analysis used a short trinucleotide repeat containing 6 (TNRC6)/glycine-tryptophan repeat protein (GW182) protein-derived peptide fused to Glutathione S-transferase as an affinity matrix to capture mature Ago-small RNAs complexes from the cytosol of non-infected and Leishmania-infected cells. Furthermore, Ago1 silencing significantly reduced intracellular survival of Leishmania, demonstrating that Ago1 is essential for Leishmania pathogenesis. To investigate the role of host Ago1 in Leishmania pathogenesis, a quantitative whole proteome approach was employed, which showed that expression of several previously reported Leishmania pathogenesis-related proteins was dependent on the level of macrophage Ago1. Together, these findings identify Ago1 as the preferred Argonaute of RNAi machinery in infected cells and a novel and essential virulence factor by proxy that promotes Leishmania survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atieh Moradimotlagh
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Stella Chen
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Sara Koohbor
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kyung-Mee Moon
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Leonard J. Foster
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Neil Reiner
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Devki Nandan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Weber JI, Rodrigues AV, Valério-Bolas A, Nunes T, Carvalheiro M, Antunes W, Alexandre-Pires G, da Fonseca IP, Santos-Gomes G. Insights on Host-Parasite Immunomodulation Mediated by Extracellular Vesicles of Cutaneous Leishmania shawi and Leishmania guyanensis. Cells 2023; 12:1101. [PMID: 37190011 PMCID: PMC10137031 DOI: 10.3390/cells12081101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/01/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease caused by different species of Leishmania and transmitted through the bite of sand flies vector. Macrophages (MΦ), the target cells of Leishmania parasites, are phagocytes that play a crucial role in the innate immune microbial defense and are antigen-presenting cells driving the activation of the acquired immune response. Exploring parasite-host communication may be key in restraining parasite dissemination in the host. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) constitute a group of heterogenous cell-derived membranous structures, naturally produced by all cells and with immunomodulatory potential over target cells. This study examined the immunogenic potential of EVs shed by L. shawi and L. guyanensis in MΦ activation by analyzing the dynamics of major histocompatibility complex (MHC), innate immune receptors, and cytokine generation. L. shawi and L. guyanensis EVs were incorporated by MΦ and modulated innate immune receptors, indicating that EVs cargo can be recognized by MΦ sensors. Moreover, EVs induced MΦ to generate a mix of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and favored the expression of MHCI molecules, suggesting that EVs antigens can be present to T cells, activating the acquired immune response of the host. Since nano-sized vesicles can be used as vehicles of immune mediators or immunomodulatory drugs, parasitic EVs can be exploited by bioengineering approaches for the development of efficient prophylactic or therapeutic tools for leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Inês Weber
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine (GHTM), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical (IHMT), Universidade Nova de Lisboa (UNL), Rua da Junqueira 100, 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Armanda Viana Rodrigues
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine (GHTM), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical (IHMT), Universidade Nova de Lisboa (UNL), Rua da Junqueira 100, 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ana Valério-Bolas
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine (GHTM), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical (IHMT), Universidade Nova de Lisboa (UNL), Rua da Junqueira 100, 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Telmo Nunes
- Microscopy Center, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Manuela Carvalheiro
- Research Institute for Medicines, iMed, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Wilson Antunes
- Unidade Militar Laboratorial de Defesa Biológica e Química (UMLDBQ), 1849-012 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Graça Alexandre-Pires
- CIISA, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, Av. Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), 2825-466 Setúbal, Portugal
| | - Isabel Pereira da Fonseca
- CIISA, Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, Av. Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), 2825-466 Setúbal, Portugal
| | - Gabriela Santos-Gomes
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine (GHTM), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical (IHMT), Universidade Nova de Lisboa (UNL), Rua da Junqueira 100, 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal
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Beyzay F, Zavaran Hosseini A, Hazrati A, Karimi M, Soudi S. Autophagy induced macrophages by α-alumina(α-AL2O3) conjugated cysteine peptidase, enhances the cytotoxic activity of CD8 + T lymphocytes against Leishmania major. BIOIMPACTS : BI 2023; 13:393-403. [PMID: 37736336 PMCID: PMC10509742 DOI: 10.34172/bi.2023.25282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Induction of a protective immune response against Leishmania major requires the activation of both TH1 and CD8+ T lymphocytes. Because L. major is an intra-phagosomal parasite, its antigens do not have access to MHC-I. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of cysteine peptidase A (CPA)/cysteine peptidase B (CPB) conjugated to α-AL2O3 on autophagy induction in L. major infected macrophages and subsequent activation of cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes. Methods Recombinant CPA and CPB of L. major were produced in expression vectors and purified. Aldehyde functionalized α-AL2O3 were conjugated to hydrazine-modified CPA/CPB by a chemical bond was confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The High efficient internalization of α-AL2O3 conjugated CPA/CPB to macrophages was confirmed using a fluorescence microscope and flowcytometry. Induction of the acidic autophagosome and LC3 conversion in macrophages was determined by acridine orange (AO) staining and western blot. Autophagy-activated macrophages were used for CD8+ T cell priming. Cytotoxic activity of the primed CD8+ T cell against L. major infected macrophages was measured using apoptosis assay. Results α-AL2O3 conjugated CPA/CPB enhances macrophages antigen uptake and increases acidic vacuole formation and LC-3I to LC-3II conversion. Co-culture of autophagy-activated macrophages with CD8+ T cells augmented CD8+ T cells priming and proliferation more than in other study groups. These primed CD8+ T cells induce significant apoptotic death of L. major infected macrophages compared with non-primed CD8+ T cells. Conclusion α-AL2O3 nanoparticles enhance the cross-presentation of L. major antigens to CD8+ T cells by inducing autophagy. This finding supports the positive role of autophagy and encourages the use of α-AL2O3 in vaccine design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Beyzay
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ahmad Zavaran Hosseini
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Hazrati
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mozhdeh Karimi
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sara Soudi
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
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Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a zoonotic and vector-borne infectious disease that is caused by the genus Leishmania belonging to the trypanosomatid family. The protozoan parasite has a digenetic life cycle involving a mammalian host and an insect vector. Leishmaniasisis is a worldwide public health problem falling under the neglected tropical disease category, with over 90 endemic countries, and approximately 1 million new cases and 20,000 deaths annually. Leishmania infection can progress toward the development of species–specific pathologic disorders, ranging in severity from self-healing cutaneous lesions to disseminating muco-cutaneous and fatal visceral manifestations. The severity and the outcome of leishmaniasis is determined by the parasite’s antigenic epitope characteristics, the vector physiology, and most importantly, the immune response and immune status of the host. This review examines the nature of host–pathogen interaction in leishmaniasis, innate and adaptive immune responses, and various strategies that have been employed for vaccine development.
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Singh R, Anand A, Rawat AK, Saini S, Mahapatra B, Singh NK, Mishra AK, Singh S, Singh N, Kishore D, Kumar V, Das P, Singh RK. CD300a Receptor Blocking Enhances Early Clearance of Leishmania donovani From Its Mammalian Host Through Modulation of Effector Functions of Phagocytic and Antigen Experienced T Cells. Front Immunol 2022; 12:793611. [PMID: 35116028 PMCID: PMC8803664 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.793611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The parasites of the genus Leishmania survive and proliferate in the host phagocytic cells by taking control over their microbicidal functions. The parasite also promotes differentiation of antigen-specific anti-inflammatory cytokines producing effector T cells, which eventually results in disease pathogenesis. The mechanisms that parasites employ to dominate host adaptive immunity are largely unknown. For the first time, we report that L. donovani, which causes visceral leishmaniasis in the Indian subcontinent, upregulates the expression of an immune inhibitory receptor i.e., CD300a on antigen presenting and phagocytic cells to dampen their effector functions. The blocking of CD300a signals in leishmania antigens activated macrophages and dendritic cells enhanced the production of nitric oxide, pro-inflammatory cytokines along with MHCI/II genes expression, and reduced parasitic uptake. Further, the abrogation of CD300a signals in Leishmania infected mice benefited antigen-experienced, i.e., CD4+CD44+ and CD8+CD44+ T cells to acquire more pro-inflammatory cytokines producing phenotypes and helped in the early clearance of parasites from their visceral organs. The CD300a receptor blocking also enhanced the conversion of CD4+ T effectors cells to their memory phenotypes i.e., CCR7high CD62Lhigh up to 1.6 and 1.9 fold after 14 and 21 days post-infection, respectively. These findings implicate that CD300a is an important determinant of host phagocytic cells functions and T cells differentiation against Leishmania antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajan Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Anshul Anand
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Arun K. Rawat
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Shashi Saini
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Baishakhi Mahapatra
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Naveen K. Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Alok K. Mishra
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Samer Singh
- Centre of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, Institute of Medical Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Nisha Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Dhiraj Kishore
- Department of Medicine, Institute of Medical Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Vinod Kumar
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute, Patna, India
| | - Pradeep Das
- Department of Molecular Biology, Rajendra Memorial Research Institute, Patna, India
| | - Rakesh K. Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
- *Correspondence: Rakesh K. Singh,
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Immunopeptidomic analysis of influenza A virus infected human tissues identifies internal proteins as a rich source of HLA ligands. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1009894. [PMID: 35051231 PMCID: PMC8806059 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
CD8+ and CD4+ T cells provide cell-mediated cross-protection against multiple influenza strains by recognising epitopes bound as peptides to human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I and -II molecules respectively. Two challenges in identifying the immunodominant epitopes needed to generate a universal T cell influenza vaccine are: A lack of cell models susceptible to influenza infection which present population-prevalent HLA allotypes, and an absence of a reliable in-vitro method of identifying class II HLA peptides. Here we present a mass spectrometry-based proteomics strategy for identifying viral peptides derived from the A/H3N2/X31 and A/H3N2/Wisconsin/67/2005 strains of influenza. We compared the HLA-I and -II immunopeptidomes presented by ex-vivo influenza challenged human lung tissues. We then compared these with directly infected immortalised macrophage-like cell line (THP1) and primary dendritic cells fed apoptotic influenza-infected respiratory epithelial cells. In each of the three experimental conditions we identified novel influenza class I and II HLA peptides with motifs specific for the host allotype. Ex-vivo infected lung tissues yielded few class-II HLA peptides despite significant numbers of alveolar macrophages, including directly infected ones, present within the tissues. THP1 cells presented HLA-I viral peptides derived predominantly from internal proteins. Primary dendritic cells presented predominantly viral envelope-derived HLA class II peptides following phagocytosis of apoptotic infected cells. The most frequent viral source protein for HLA-I and -II was matrix 1 protein (M1). This work confirms that internal influenza proteins, particularly M1, are a rich source of CD4+ and CD8+ T cell epitopes. Moreover, we demonstrate the utility of two ex-vivo fully human infection models which enable direct HLA-I and -II immunopeptide identification without significant viral tropism limitations. Application of this epitope discovery strategy in a clinical setting will provide more certainty in rational vaccine design against influenza and other emergent viruses.
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Pradhan S, Ghosh S, Hussain S, Paul J, Mukherjee B. Linking membrane fluidity with defective antigen presentation in leishmaniasis. Parasite Immunol 2021; 43:e12835. [PMID: 33756007 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Hampering-surface presentation of immunogenic peptides by class I/II MHCs is a key strategy opted by several intracellular protozoan pathogens including Leishmania to escape CD8/CD4 mediated host-protective T-cell response. Although Leishmania parasites (LP) primarily hijack/inhibit host lysosomal/proteasomal pathways to hamper antigen-processing/presentation machinery, recent pieces of evidence have linked host-membrane fluidity as a major cause of defective antigen presentation in leishmaniasis. Increased membrane fluidity severely compromised peptide-MHC stability in the lipid raft regions, thereby abrogating T-cell mediated-signalling in the infected host. LP primarily achieves this by quenching host cholesterol, which acts as cementing material in maintaining the membrane fluidity. In this review, we have particularly focused on several strategies opted by LP to hijack-host cholesterol resulting in lipid droplets accumulation around leishmania-containing parasitophorous vacuole favouring intracellular survival of LP. In fact, LP infection can result in altered cholesterol and lipid metabolism in the infected host, thereby favouring the establishment and progression of the infection. From our analysis of two genome-wide transcriptomics data sets of LP infected host, we propose a possible molecular network that connects these interrelated events of altered lipid metabolism with eventual compromised antigen presentation, still existing as a gap in our current understanding of Leishmania infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Supratim Pradhan
- School of Medical Science and Technology, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
| | - Souradeepa Ghosh
- School of Medical Science and Technology, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
| | - Shahbaj Hussain
- School of Medical Science and Technology, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India
| | - Joydeep Paul
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Adamas University, Kolkata, India
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Zutshi S, Kumar S, Chauhan P, Bansode Y, Nair A, Roy S, Sarkar A, Saha B. Anti-Leishmanial Vaccines: Assumptions, Approaches, and Annulments. Vaccines (Basel) 2019; 7:vaccines7040156. [PMID: 31635276 PMCID: PMC6963565 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines7040156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Revised: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a neglected protozoan parasitic disease that occurs in 88 countries but a vaccine is unavailable. Vaccination with live, killed, attenuated (physically or genetically) Leishmania have met with limited success, while peptide-, protein-, or DNA-based vaccines showed promise only in animal models. Here, we critically assess several technical issues in vaccination and expectation of a host-protective immune response. Several studies showed that antigen presentation during priming and triggering of the same cells in infected condition are not comparable. Altered proteolytic processing, antigen presentation, protease-susceptible sites, and intracellular expression of pathogenic proteins during Leishmania infection may vary dominant epitope selection, MHC-II/peptide affinity, and may deter the reactivation of desired antigen-specific T cells generated during priming. The robustness of the memory T cells and their functions remains a concern. Presentation of the antigens by Leishmania-infected macrophages to antigen-specific memory T cells may lead to change in the T cells' functional phenotype or anergy or apoptosis. Although cells may be activated, the peptides generated during infection may be different and cross-reactive to the priming peptides. Such altered peptide ligands may lead to suppression of otherwise active antigen-specific T cells. We critically assess these different immunological issues that led to the non-availability of a vaccine for human use.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sunil Kumar
- National Centre for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411007, India.
| | - Prashant Chauhan
- National Centre for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411007, India.
| | - Yashwant Bansode
- National Centre for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411007, India.
| | - Arathi Nair
- National Centre for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411007, India.
| | - Somenath Roy
- Department of Human Physiology with Community Health, Vidyasagar University, Midnapore 721102, India.
| | - Arup Sarkar
- Department of Biotechnology, Trident Academy of Creative Technology, Bhubaneswar 751024, India.
| | - Bhaskar Saha
- National Centre for Cell Science, Ganeshkhind, Pune 411007, India.
- Department of Biotechnology, Trident Academy of Creative Technology, Bhubaneswar 751024, India.
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