Development of monoclonal anti-PDGF-CC antibodies as tools for investigating human tissue expression and for blocking PDGF-CC induced PDGFRα signalling in vivo

Angiogenic signaling pathways and anti-angiogenic therapy for cancer

Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels, is a complex and dynamic process regulated by various pro- and anti-angiogenic molecules, which plays a crucial role in tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis. With the advances in molecular and cellular biology, various biomolecules such as growth factors, chemokines, and adhesion factors involved in tumor angiogenesis has gradually been elucidated. Targeted therapeutic research based on these molecules has driven anti-angiogenic treatment to become a promising strategy in anti-tumor therapy. The most widely used anti-angiogenic agents include monoclonal antibodies and tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) targeting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) pathway. However, the clinical benefit of this modality has still been limited due to several defects such as adverse events, acquired drug resistance, tumor recurrence, and lack of validated biomarkers, which impel further research on mechanisms of tumor angiogenesis, the development of multiple drugs and the combination therapy to figure out how to improve the therapeutic efficacy. Here, we broadly summarize various signaling pathways in tumor angiogenesis and discuss the development and current challenges of anti-angiogenic therapy. We also propose several new promising approaches to improve anti-angiogenic efficacy and provide a perspective for the development and research of anti-angiogenic therapy.

The Platelet-Derived Growth Factor Pathway in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: Still an Interesting Target?

The lack of curative options for pulmonary arterial hypertension drives important research to understand the mechanisms underlying this devastating disease. Among the main identified pathways, the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) pathway was established to control vascular remodeling and anti-PDGF receptor (PDGFR) drugs were shown to reverse the disease in experimental models. Four different isoforms of PDGF are produced by various cell types in the lung. PDGFs control vascular cells migration, proliferation and survival through binding to their receptors PDGFRα and β. They elicit multiple intracellular signaling pathways which have been particularly studied in pulmonary smooth muscle cells. Activation of the PDGF pathway has been demonstrated both in patients and in pulmonary hypertension (PH) experimental models. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) are numerous but without real specificity and Imatinib, one of the most specific, resulted in beneficial effects. However, adverse events and treatment discontinuation discouraged to pursue this therapy. Novel therapeutic strategies are currently under experimental evaluation. For TKI, they include intratracheal drug administration, low dosage or nanoparticles delivery. Specific anti-PDGF and anti-PDGFR molecules can also be designed such as new TKI, soluble receptors, aptamers or oligonucleotides.

Targeting the PDGF/PDGFR signaling pathway for cancer therapy: A review

Platelet-derived growth factors (PDGFs) and PDGF receptors (PDGFRs) are expressed in a variety of tumors. Activation of the PDGF/PDGFR signaling pathway is associated with cancer proliferation, metastasis, invasion, and angiogenesis through modulating multiple downstream pathways, including phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase/protein kinase B pathway and mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway. Therefore, targeting PDGF/PDGFR signaling pathway has been demonstrated to be an effective strategy for cancer therapy, and accordingly, some great progress has been made in this field in the past few decades. This review will focus on the PDGF isoforms and their binding with the related PDGFRs, the PDGF/PDGFR signaling and regulation, and especially present strategies and inhibitors developed for cancer therapy, and the related clinical benefits and side effects.

Blocking PDGF-CC signaling ameliorates multiple sclerosis-like neuroinflammation by inhibiting disruption of the blood-brain barrier

Disruption of blood–brain barrier (BBB) integrity is a feature of various neurological disorders. Here we found that the BBB is differently affected during the preclinical, progression and remission phase of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS). We have identified an upregulation of pro-inflammatory and pro-angiogenic factors in the BBB transcriptome and down-regulation of endothelial tight junction members coinciding with elevated BBB leakage specifically during the progression phase. These changes were antagonized by blocking PDGFRα signaling with the small tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib. Moreover, targeting the PDGFRα ligand PDGF-CC using a neutralizing antibody, facilitated recovery of BBB integrity and improvement of EAE symptoms. Intracerebroventricular injection of PDGF-CC induced upregulation, whereas blocking PDGF-CC during EAE led to downregulation of Tnfa and Il1a at the BBB. Our findings suggest that blocking PDGF-CC counteracts fundamental aspects of endothelial cell activation and disruption of the BBB by decreasing Tnfa and Il1a expression. We also demonstrate that both PDGF-CC and its receptor PDGFRα were upregulated in MS lesions indicating that blocking PDGF-CC may be considered a novel treatment for MS.

Angioneurins - Key regulators of blood-brain barrier integrity during hypoxic and ischemic brain injury

The loss of blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity leading to vasogenic edema and brain swelling is a common feature of hypoxic/ischemic brain diseases such as stroke, but is also central to the etiology of other CNS disorders. In the past decades, numerous proteins, belonging to the family of angioneurins, have gained increasing attention as potential therapeutic targets for ischemic stroke, but also other CNS diseases attributed to BBB dysfunction. Angioneurins encompass mediators that affect both neuronal and vascular function. Recently, increasing evidence has been accumulated that certain angioneurins critically determine disease progression and outcome in stroke among others through multifaceted effects on the compromised BBB. Here, we will give a concise overview about the family of angioneurins. We further describe the most important cellular and molecular components that contribute to structural integrity and low permeability of the BBB under steady-state conditions. We then discuss BBB alterations in ischemic stroke, and highlight underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms. For the most prominent angioneurin family members including vascular endothelial growth factors, angiopoietins, platelet-derived growth factors and erythropoietin, we will summarize current scientific literature from experimental studies in animal models, and if available from clinical trials, on the following points: (i) spatiotemporal expression of these factors in the healthy and hypoxic/ischemic CNS, (ii) impact of loss- or gain-of-function during cerebral hypoxia/ischemia for BBB integrity and beyond, and (iii) potential underlying molecular mechanisms. Moreover, we will highlight novel therapeutic strategies based on the activation of endogenous angioneurins that might improve BBB dysfuntion during ischemic stroke.