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Gachohi J, Bett B, Otieno F, Mogoa E, Njoki P, Muturi M, Mwatondo A, Osoro E, Ngere I, Dawa J, Nasimiyu C, Oyas H, Njagi O, Canfield S, Blackburn J, Njenga K. Anthrax hotspot mapping in Kenya support establishing a sustainable two-phase elimination program targeting less than 6% of the country landmass. Sci Rep 2022; 12:21670. [PMID: 36522381 PMCID: PMC9755300 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-24000-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Using data collected from previous (n = 86) and prospective (n = 132) anthrax outbreaks, we enhanced prior ecological niche models (ENM) and added kernel density estimation (KDE) approaches to identify anthrax hotspots in Kenya. Local indicators of spatial autocorrelation (LISA) identified clusters of administrative wards with a relatively high or low anthrax reporting rate to determine areas of greatest outbreak intensity. Subsequently, we modeled the impact of vaccinating livestock in the identified hotspots as a national control measure. Anthrax suitable areas included high agriculture zones concentrated in the western, southwestern and central highland regions, consisting of 1043 of 1450 administrative wards, covering 18.5% country landmass, and hosting 30% of the approximately 13 million cattle population in the country. Of these, 79 wards covering 5.5% landmass and hosting 9% of the cattle population fell in identified anthrax hotspots. The rest of the 407 administrative wards covering 81.5% of the country landmass, were classified as low anthrax risk areas and consisted of the expansive low agricultural arid and semi-arid regions of the country that hosted 70% of the cattle population, reared under the nomadic pastoralism. Modelling targeted annual vaccination of 90% cattle population in hotspot administrative wards reduced > 23,000 human exposures. These findings support an economically viable first phase of anthrax control program in low-income countries where the disease is endemic, that is focused on enhanced animal and human surveillance in burden hotspots, followed by rapid response to outbreaks anchored on public education, detection and treatment of infected humans, and ring vaccination of livestock. Subsequently, the global anthrax elimination program focused on sustained vaccination and surveillance in livestock in the remaining few hotspots for a prolonged period (> 10 years) may be implemented.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Gachohi
- grid.411943.a0000 0000 9146 7108School of Public Health, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi, Kenya ,Washington State University Global Health Program, Washington State University, P. O. Box 72938, Nairobi, 00200 Kenya ,grid.30064.310000 0001 2157 6568Paul G, Allen School of Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA99164 USA
| | - Bernard Bett
- grid.419369.00000 0000 9378 4481International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Fredrick Otieno
- grid.419369.00000 0000 9378 4481International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Eddy Mogoa
- grid.10604.330000 0001 2019 0495Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Peris Njoki
- Washington State University Global Health Program, Washington State University, P. O. Box 72938, Nairobi, 00200 Kenya
| | - Mathew Muturi
- grid.419369.00000 0000 9378 4481International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya ,Kenya Zoonotic Disease Unit, Nairobi, Kenya ,grid.463427.0Kenya Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Athman Mwatondo
- grid.419369.00000 0000 9378 4481International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya ,Kenya Zoonotic Disease Unit, Nairobi, Kenya ,grid.415727.2Ministry of Health, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Eric Osoro
- Washington State University Global Health Program, Washington State University, P. O. Box 72938, Nairobi, 00200 Kenya ,grid.30064.310000 0001 2157 6568Paul G, Allen School of Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA99164 USA
| | - Isaac Ngere
- Washington State University Global Health Program, Washington State University, P. O. Box 72938, Nairobi, 00200 Kenya ,grid.30064.310000 0001 2157 6568Paul G, Allen School of Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA99164 USA
| | - Jeanette Dawa
- Washington State University Global Health Program, Washington State University, P. O. Box 72938, Nairobi, 00200 Kenya ,grid.30064.310000 0001 2157 6568Paul G, Allen School of Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA99164 USA
| | - Carolyne Nasimiyu
- Washington State University Global Health Program, Washington State University, P. O. Box 72938, Nairobi, 00200 Kenya ,grid.30064.310000 0001 2157 6568Paul G, Allen School of Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA99164 USA
| | - Harry Oyas
- grid.463427.0Kenya Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Obadiah Njagi
- grid.463427.0Kenya Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Samuel Canfield
- grid.15276.370000 0004 1936 8091Spatial Epidemiology and Ecology Research Laboratory, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA
| | - Jason Blackburn
- grid.15276.370000 0004 1936 8091Spatial Epidemiology and Ecology Research Laboratory, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA ,grid.15276.370000 0004 1936 8091Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Road, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA
| | - Kariuki Njenga
- Washington State University Global Health Program, Washington State University, P. O. Box 72938, Nairobi, 00200 Kenya ,grid.30064.310000 0001 2157 6568Paul G, Allen School of Global Health, Washington State University, Pullman, WA99164 USA
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Zorigt T, Ito S, Isoda N, Furuta Y, Shawa M, Norov N, Lkham B, Enkhtuya J, Higashi H. Risk factors and spatio-temporal patterns of livestock anthrax in Khuvsgul Province, Mongolia. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0260299. [PMID: 34797889 PMCID: PMC8604359 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthrax is a worldwide zoonotic disease. Anthrax has long been a public health and socio-economic issue in Mongolia. Presently, there is no spatial information on carcass burial sites as a potential hazard of future anthrax outbreaks and possible risk factors associated with anthrax occurrences in Mongolia. Here, we analyze retrospective data (1986-2015) on the disposal sites of livestock carcasses to describe historical spatio-temporal patterns of livestock anthrax in Khuvsgul Province, which showed the highest anthrax incidence rate in Mongolia. From the results of spatial mean and standard deviational ellipse analyses, we found that the anthrax spatial distribution in livestock did not change over the study period, indicating a localized source of exposure. The multi-distance spatial cluster analysis showed that carcass sites distributed in the study area are clustered. Using kernel density estimation analysis on carcass sites, we identified two anthrax hotspots in low-lying areas around the south and north regions. Notably, this study disclosed a new hotspot in the northern part that emerged in the last decade of the 30-year study period. The highest proportion of cases was recorded in cattle, whose prevalence per area was highest in six districts (i.e., Murun, Chandmani-Undur, Khatgal, Ikh-Uul, Tosontsengel, and Tsagaan-Uul), suggesting that vaccination should prioritize cattle in these districts. Furthermore, size of outbreaks was influenced by the annual summer mean air temperature of Khuvsgul Province, probably by affecting the permafrost freeze-thawing activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuvshinzaya Zorigt
- Division of Infection and Immunity, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Satoshi Ito
- Unit of Risk Analysis and Management, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Norikazu Isoda
- Laboratory of Microbiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Furuta
- Division of Infection and Immunity, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Misheck Shawa
- Division of Infection and Immunity, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Natsagdorj Norov
- Division of Quality Management and Coordination, Mongolian University of Life Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | - Baasansuren Lkham
- Laboratory of Infectious Disease and Immunology, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Mongolian University of Life Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | - Jargalsaikhan Enkhtuya
- Laboratory of Food Safety and Hygiene, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Mongolian University of Life Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | - Hideaki Higashi
- Division of Infection and Immunity, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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Spatial clustering of livestock Anthrax events associated with agro-ecological zones in Kenya, 1957-2017. BMC Infect Dis 2021; 21:191. [PMID: 33602160 PMCID: PMC7890876 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-021-05871-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Developing disease risk maps for priority endemic and episodic diseases is becoming increasingly important for more effective disease management, particularly in resource limited countries. For endemic and easily diagnosed diseases such as anthrax, using historical data to identify hotspots and start to define ecological risk factors of its occurrence is a plausible approach. Using 666 livestock anthrax events reported in Kenya over 60 years (1957–2017), we determined the temporal and spatial patterns of the disease as a step towards identifying and characterizing anthrax hotspots in the region. Methods Data were initially aggregated by administrative unit and later analyzed by agro-ecological zones (AEZ) to reveal anthrax spatio-temporal trends and patterns. Variations in the occurrence of anthrax events were estimated by fitting Poisson generalized linear mixed-effects models to the data with AEZs and calendar months as fixed effects and sub-counties as random effects. Results The country reported approximately 10 anthrax events annually, with the number increasing to as many as 50 annually by the year 2005. Spatial classification of the events in eight counties that reported the highest numbers revealed spatial clustering in certain administrative sub-counties, with 12% of the sub-counties responsible for over 30% of anthrax events, whereas 36% did not report any anthrax disease over the 60-year period. When segregated by AEZs, there was significantly greater risk of anthrax disease occurring in agro-alpine, high, and medium potential AEZs when compared to the agriculturally low potential arid and semi-arid AEZs of the country (p < 0.05). Interestingly, cattle were > 10 times more likely to be infected by B. anthracis than sheep, goats, or camels. There was lower risk of anthrax events in August (P = 0.034) and December (P = 0.061), months that follow long and short rain periods, respectively. Conclusion Taken together, these findings suggest existence of certain geographic, ecological, and demographic risk factors that promote B. anthracis persistence and trasmission in the disease hotspots.
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Lepheana RJ, Oguttu JW, Qekwana DN. Spatial Patterns of Anthrax Outbreaks and Cases among Livestock in Lesotho, 2005-2016. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17207584. [PMID: 33086488 PMCID: PMC7588925 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17207584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Background: Although anthrax occurs globally, the burden of the disease remains particularly high in Africa. Furthermore, the disease anthrax has significant public health and economic implications. However, sufficient attention has not been given to the geographic distribution of anthrax outbreaks and cases in Lesotho. Therefore, this study investigates the spatial patterns of anthrax outbreaks and cases among livestock in Lesotho from 2005 to 2016. Methods: A cross-sectional study design was adopted to realise the objectives of this study using retrospective data of anthrax outbreaks and cases recorded by the Department of Livestock Services (DLS) between 2005 and 2016. Anthrax outbreaks were geo-coded at village level and aggregated at district level. Proportions and 95% CI of anthrax outbreaks and cases by village and district were calculated. Cartographic maps displaying the distribution of anthrax outbreaks and cases at village and district level were constructed. Results: A total of 38 outbreaks were reported over the study period, and they were clustered in the Lowlands districts of Lesotho. Most outbreaks (52.6%, 20/38) in livestock were reported in the Maseru district. The Leribe district reported the lowest proportions of outbreaks (5.3%, 2/38) and cases (0.6%, 3/526). At the village level, 18% (7/38) of outbreaks were in Maseru Urban, followed by Ratau (16%, 6/38) and Mofoka (13%, 5/38). The Maseru district reported the highest (1.3%, 369/29,070) proportion of cases followed by Mafeteng (0.9%, 73/8530). The village with the most cases was Kolo (10.5%, 21/200), followed by Thaba-Chitja (7.7%, 33/430). Conclusion: Anthrax outbreaks and cases exclusively occur in the Lowlands districts of Lesotho, with villages such as Mahobong, Pitseng, Kolo, and Thaba-Chitja having a higher risk of anthrax disease. Findings of the present study have serious public health implications in light of the fact that between 2003 and 2008 Lesotho’s main abattoir was closed; hence, most of the meat in Lesotho was imported and/or sourced from the informal slaughter facilities. Much larger studies are needed to further investigate factors contributing to spatial disparities in anthrax outbreaks and cases observed in this study. Findings of the present study can be used to guide the formulation of a policy on prevention and control of anthrax in Lesotho.
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Affiliation(s)
- Relebohile Juliet Lepheana
- Section Veterinary Public Health, Department of Paraclinical Science, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0110, South Africa;
- Department of Livestock Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, Maseru 100, Lesotho
| | - James Wabwire Oguttu
- Department of Agriculture and Animal Health, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Florida Science Campus, Johannesburg 1709, South Africa;
| | - Daniel Nenene Qekwana
- Section Veterinary Public Health, Department of Paraclinical Science, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0110, South Africa;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +27-12-529-8015
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Carlson CJ, Kracalik IT, Ross N, Alexander KA, Hugh-Jones ME, Fegan M, Elkin BT, Epp T, Shury TK, Zhang W, Bagirova M, Getz WM, Blackburn JK. The global distribution of Bacillus anthracis and associated anthrax risk to humans, livestock and wildlife. Nat Microbiol 2019; 4:1337-1343. [PMID: 31086311 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-019-0435-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Bacillus anthracis is a spore-forming, Gram-positive bacterium responsible for anthrax, an acute infection that most significantly affects grazing livestock and wild ungulates, but also poses a threat to human health. The geographic extent of B. anthracis is poorly understood, despite multi-decade research on anthrax epizootic and epidemic dynamics; many countries have limited or inadequate surveillance systems, even within known endemic regions. Here, we compile a global occurrence dataset of human, livestock and wildlife anthrax outbreaks. With these records, we use boosted regression trees to produce a map of the global distribution of B. anthracis as a proxy for anthrax risk. We estimate that 1.83 billion people (95% credible interval (CI): 0.59-4.16 billion) live within regions of anthrax risk, but most of that population faces little occupational exposure. More informatively, a global total of 63.8 million poor livestock keepers (95% CI: 17.5-168.6 million) and 1.1 billion livestock (95% CI: 0.4-2.3 billion) live within vulnerable regions. Human and livestock vulnerability are both concentrated in rural rainfed systems throughout arid and temperate land across Eurasia, Africa and North America. We conclude by mapping where anthrax risk could disrupt sensitive conservation efforts for wild ungulates that coincide with anthrax-prone landscapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin J Carlson
- National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center, University of Maryland, Annapolis, MD, USA.,Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, Washington DC, USA
| | - Ian T Kracalik
- Spatial Epidemiology & Ecology Research Lab, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Noam Ross
- EcoHealth Alliance, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kathleen A Alexander
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Martin E Hugh-Jones
- School of the Coast and Environment, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Mark Fegan
- AgriBio, Centre for Agribiosciences, Biosciences Research, Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
| | - Brett T Elkin
- Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Government of the Northwest Territories, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada
| | - Tasha Epp
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Todd K Shury
- Parks Canada Agency, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Wenyi Zhang
- Center for Disease Surveillance & Research, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, Beijing, China
| | | | - Wayne M Getz
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Jason K Blackburn
- Spatial Epidemiology & Ecology Research Lab, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA. .,Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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