1
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Jung KW, Kwon S, Jung JH, Lim S, Bahn YS. Functional Characterization of DNA N-Glycosylase Ogg1 and Ntg1 in DNA Damage Stress of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Microbiol 2023; 61:981-992. [PMID: 38055144 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-023-00092-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species induce DNA strand breaks and DNA oxidation. DNA oxidation leads to DNA mismatches, resulting in mutations in the genome if not properly repaired. Homologous recombination (HR) and non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) are required for DNA strand breaks, whereas the base excision repair system mainly repairs oxidized DNAs, such as 8-oxoguanine and thymine glycol, by cleaving the glycosidic bond, inserting correct nucleotides, and sealing the gap. Our previous studies revealed that the Rad53-Bdr1 pathway mainly controls DNA strand breaks through the regulation of HR- and NHEJ-related genes. However, the functional roles of genes involved in the base excision repair system remain elusive in Cryptococcus neoformans. In the present study, we identified OGG1 and NTG1 genes in the base excision repair system of C. neoformans, which are involved in DNA oxidation repair. The expression of OGG1 was induced in a Hog1-dependent manner under oxidative stress. On the other hand, the expression of NTG1 was strongly induced by DNA damage stress in a Rad53-independent manner. We demonstrated that the deletion of NTG1, but not OGG1, resulted in elevated susceptibility to DNA damage agents and oxidative stress inducers. Notably, the ntg1Δ mutant showed growth defects upon antifungal drug treatment. Although deletion of OGG1 or NTG1 did not increase mutation rates, the mutation profile of each ogg1Δ and ntg1Δ mutant was different from that of the wild-type strain. Taken together, we found that DNA N-glycosylase Ntg1 is required for oxidative DNA damage stress and antifungal drug resistance in C. neoformans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwang-Woo Jung
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup, 56212, Republic of Korea.
| | - Sunhak Kwon
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup, 56212, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Hyun Jung
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup, 56212, Republic of Korea
| | - Sangyong Lim
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup, 56212, Republic of Korea
- Department of Radiation Science, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Sun Bahn
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
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2
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Gonzalez-Jimenez I, Perlin DS, Shor E. Reactive oxidant species induced by antifungal drugs: identity, origins, functions, and connection to stress-induced cell death. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1276406. [PMID: 37900311 PMCID: PMC10602735 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1276406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxidant species (ROS) are unstable, highly reactive molecules that are produced by cells either as byproducts of metabolism or synthesized by specialized enzymes. ROS can be detrimental, e.g., by damaging cellular macromolecules, or beneficial, e.g., by participating in signaling. An increasing body of evidence shows that various fungal species, including both yeasts and molds, increase ROS production upon exposure to the antifungal drugs currently used in the clinic: azoles, polyenes, and echinocandins. However, the implications of these findings are still largely unclear due to gaps in knowledge regarding the chemical nature, molecular origins, and functional consequences of these ROS. Because the detection of ROS in fungal cells has largely relied on fluorescent probes that lack specificity, the chemical nature of the ROS is not known, and it may vary depending on the specific fungus-drug combination. In several instances, the origin of antifungal drug-induced ROS has been identified as the mitochondria, but further experiments are necessary to strengthen this conclusion and to investigate other potential cellular ROS sources, such as the ER, peroxisomes, and ROS-producing enzymes. With respect to the function of the ROS, several studies have shown that they contribute to the drugs' fungicidal activities and may be part of drug-induced programmed cell death (PCD). However, whether these "pro-death" ROS are a primary consequence of the antifungal mechanism of action or a secondary consequence of drug-induced PCD remains unclear. Finally, several recent studies have raised the possibility that ROS induction can serve an adaptive role, promoting antifungal drug tolerance and the evolution of drug resistance. Filling these gaps in knowledge will reveal a new aspect of fungal biology and may identify new ways to potentiate antifungal drug activity or prevent the evolution of antifungal drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Gonzalez-Jimenez
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ, United States
| | - David S. Perlin
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ, United States
- Medical Sciences, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, NJ, United States
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Erika Shor
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ, United States
- Medical Sciences, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, NJ, United States
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3
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Choi JT, Choi Y, Lee Y, Lee SH, Kang S, Lee KT, Bahn YS. The hybrid RAVE complex plays V-ATPase-dependent and -independent pathobiological roles in Cryptococcus neoformans. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011721. [PMID: 37812645 PMCID: PMC10586682 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023] Open
Abstract
V-ATPase, which comprises 13-14 subunits, is essential for pH homeostasis in all eukaryotes, but its proper function requires a regulator to assemble its subunits. While RAVE (regulator of H+-ATPase of vacuolar and endosomal membranes) and Raboconnectin-3 complexes assemble V-ATPase subunits in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and humans, respectively, the function of the RAVE complex in fungal pathogens remains largely unknown. In this study, we identified two RAVE complex components, Rav1 and Wdr1, in the fungal meningitis pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans, and analyzed their roles. Rav1 and Wdr1 are orthologous to yeast RAVE and human Rabconnectin-3 counterparts, respectively, forming the hybrid RAVE (hRAVE) complex. Deletion of RAV1 caused severe defects in growth, cell cycle control, morphogenesis, sexual development, stress responses, and virulence factor production, while the deletion of WDR1 resulted in similar but modest changes, suggesting that Rav1 and Wdr1 play central and accessary roles, respectively. Proteomics analysis confirmed that Wdr1 was one of the Rav1-interacting proteins. Although the hRAVE complex generally has V-ATPase-dependent functions, it also has some V-ATPase-independent roles, suggesting a unique role beyond conventional intracellular pH regulation in C. neoformans. The hRAVE complex played a critical role in the pathogenicity of C. neoformans, and RAV1 deletion attenuated virulence and impaired blood-brain barrier crossing ability. This study provides comprehensive insights into the pathobiological roles of the fungal RAVE complex and suggests a novel therapeutic strategy for controlling cryptococcosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Tae Choi
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yeseul Choi
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yujin Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Seung-Heon Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Seun Kang
- Korea Zoonosis Research Institute, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung-Tae Lee
- Korea Zoonosis Research Institute, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonbuk, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Sun Bahn
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea
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4
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Vande Zande P, Zhou X, Selmecki A. The Dynamic Fungal Genome: Polyploidy, Aneuploidy and Copy Number Variation in Response to Stress. Annu Rev Microbiol 2023; 77:341-361. [PMID: 37307856 PMCID: PMC10599402 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-micro-041320-112443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Fungal species have dynamic genomes and often exhibit genomic plasticity in response to stress. This genome plasticity often comes with phenotypic consequences that affect fitness and resistance to stress. Fungal pathogens exhibit genome plasticity in both clinical and agricultural settings and often during adaptation to antifungal drugs, posing significant challenges to human health. Therefore, it is important to understand the rates, mechanisms, and impact of large genomic changes. This review addresses the prevalence of polyploidy, aneuploidy, and copy number variation across diverse fungal species, with special attention to prominent fungal pathogens and model species. We also explore the relationship between environmental stress and rates of genomic changes and highlight the mechanisms underlying genotypic and phenotypic changes. A comprehensive understanding of these dynamic fungal genomes is needed to identify novel solutions for the increase in antifungal drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pétra Vande Zande
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA;
| | - Xin Zhou
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA;
| | - Anna Selmecki
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA;
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5
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Gach J, Olejniczak T, Pannek J, Boratyński F. Fungistatic Effect of Phthalide Lactones on Rhodotorula mucilaginosa. Molecules 2023; 28:5423. [PMID: 37513295 PMCID: PMC10384090 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28145423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, there is an increasing number of cases of fungal infections caused by opportunistic strains of the yeast Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, mainly in immunocompromised patients during hospitalization. The excessive use of antibiotics and azole compounds increases the risk of resistance to microorganisms. A new alternative to these drugs may be synthetic phthalide lactones with a structure identical to or similar to the natural ones found in celery plants, which show low toxicity and relatively high fungistatic activity. In the present study, the fungistatic activity of seven phthalide lactones was determined against R. mucilaginosa IHEM 18459. We showed that 3-n-butylidenephthalide, the most potent compound selected in the microdilution test, caused a dose-dependent decrease in dry yeast biomass. Phthalide accumulated in yeast cells and contributed to an increase in reactive oxygen species content. The synergistic effect of fluconazole resulted in a reduction in the azole concentration required for yeast inhibition. We observed changes in the color of the yeast cultures; thus, we conducted experiments to prove that the carotenoid profile was altered. The addition of lactones also triggered a decline in fatty acid methyl esters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Gach
- Department of Food Chemistry and Biocatalysis, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Norwida 25, 50-375 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Teresa Olejniczak
- Department of Food Chemistry and Biocatalysis, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Norwida 25, 50-375 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Jakub Pannek
- Department of Food Chemistry and Biocatalysis, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Norwida 25, 50-375 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Filip Boratyński
- Department of Food Chemistry and Biocatalysis, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Norwida 25, 50-375 Wrocław, Poland
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6
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Telzrow CL, Esher Righi S, Cathey JM, Granek JA, Alspaugh JA. Cryptococcus neoformans Mar1 function links mitochondrial metabolism, oxidative stress, and antifungal tolerance. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1150272. [PMID: 36969606 PMCID: PMC10033685 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1150272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Microbial pathogens undergo significant physiological changes during interactions with the infected host, including alterations in metabolism and cell architecture. The Cryptococcus neoformans Mar1 protein is required for the proper ordering of the fungal cell wall in response to host-relevant stresses. However, the precise mechanism by which this Cryptococcus-specific protein regulates cell wall homeostasis was not defined. Methods: Here, we use comparative transcriptomics, protein localization, and phenotypic analysis of a mar1D loss-of-function mutant strain to further define the role of C. neoformans Mar1 in stress response and antifungal resistance. Results: We demonstrate that C. neoformans Mar1 is highly enriched in mitochondria. Furthermore, a mar1Δ mutant strain is impaired in growth in the presence of select electron transport chain inhibitors, has altered ATP homeostasis, and promotes proper mitochondrial morphogenesis. Pharmacological inhibition of complex IV of the electron transport chain in wild-type cells promotes similar cell wall changes as the mar1Δ mutant strain, supporting prior associations between mitochondrial function and cell wall homeostasis. Although Mar1 is not required for general susceptibility to the azole antifungals, the mar1Δ mutant strain displays increased tolerance to fluconazole that correlates with repressed mitochondrial metabolic activity. Discussion: Together, these studies support an emerging model in which the metabolic activity of microbial cells directs cell physiological changes to allow persistence in the face of antimicrobial and host stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Calla L. Telzrow
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Shannon Esher Righi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, United States
| | - Jackson M. Cathey
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Joshua A. Granek
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, United States
| | - J. Andrew Alspaugh
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
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Starodubtseva MN, Chelnokova IA, Shkliarava NM, Villalba MI, Tapalski DV, Kasas S, Willaert RG. Modulation of the nanoscale motion rate of Candida albicans by X-rays. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1133027. [PMID: 37025638 PMCID: PMC10070863 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1133027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Patients undergoing cancer treatment by radiation therapy commonly develop Candida albicans infections (candidiasis). Such infections are generally treated by antifungals that unfortunately also induce numerous secondary effects in the patient. Additional to the effect on the immune system, ionizing radiation influences the vital activity of C. albicans cells themselves; however, the reaction of C. albicans to ionizing radiation acting simultaneously with antifungals is much less well documented. In this study, we explored the effects of ionizing radiation and an antifungal drug and their combined effect on C. albicans. Methods The study essentially relied on a novel technique, referred to as optical nanomotion detection (ONMD) that monitors the viability and metabolic activity of the yeast cells in a label and attachment-free manner. Results and discussion Our findings demonstrate that after exposure to X-ray radiation alone or in combination with fluconazole, low-frequency nanoscale oscillations of whole cells are suppressed and the nanomotion rate depends on the phase of the cell cycle, absorbed dose, fluconazole concentration, and post-irradiation period. In a further development, the ONMD method can help in rapidly determining the sensitivity of C. albicans to antifungals and the individual concentration of antifungals in cancer patients undergoing radiation therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria N. Starodubtseva
- Department of Medical and Biological Physics, Gomel State Medical University, Gomel, Belarus
- Laboratory of Bionanoscopy, Institute of Radiobiology of NAS of Belarus, Gomel, Belarus
- *Correspondence: Maria N. Starodubtseva,
| | - Irina A. Chelnokova
- Laboratory of Bionanoscopy, Institute of Radiobiology of NAS of Belarus, Gomel, Belarus
| | | | - María Inés Villalba
- Laboratory of Biological Electron Microscopy, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), University of Lausanne (UNIL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Dmitry V. Tapalski
- Department of Microbiology, Gomel State Medical University, Gomel, Belarus
| | - Sandor Kasas
- Laboratory of Biological Electron Microscopy, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), University of Lausanne (UNIL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Centre Universitaire Romand de Médecine Légale, Unité Facultaire d’Anatomie et de Morphologie (UFAM), University of Lausanne (UNIL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- International Joint Research Group VUB-EPFL NanoBiotechnology & NanoMedicine (NANO), Vrije Universiteit Brussel and École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ronnie G. Willaert
- International Joint Research Group VUB-EPFL NanoBiotechnology & NanoMedicine (NANO), Vrije Universiteit Brussel and École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Alliance Research Group VUB-UGent NanoMicrobiology (NAMI), Research Group Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
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8
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Pokharel M, Konarzewska P, Roberge JY, Han GS, Wang Y, Carman GM, Xue C. The Anticancer Drug Bleomycin Shows Potent Antifungal Activity by Altering Phospholipid Biosynthesis. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0086222. [PMID: 36036637 PMCID: PMC9602507 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00862-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Invasive fungal infections are difficult to treat with limited drug options, mainly because fungi are eukaryotes and share many cellular mechanisms with the human host. Most current antifungal drugs are either fungistatic or highly toxic. Therefore, there is a critical need to identify important fungal specific drug targets for novel antifungal development. Numerous studies have shown the fungal phosphatidylserine (PS) biosynthetic pathway to be a potential target. It is synthesized from CDP-diacylglycerol and serine, and the fungal PS synthesis route is different from that in mammalian cells, in which preexisting phospholipids are utilized to produce PS in a base-exchange reaction. In this study, we utilized a Saccharomyces cerevisiae heterologous expression system to screen for inhibitors of Cryptococcus PS synthase Cho1, a fungi-specific enzyme essential for cell viability. We identified an anticancer compound, bleomycin, as a positive candidate that showed a phospholipid-dependent antifungal effect. Its inhibition on fungal growth can be restored by ethanolamine supplementation. Further exploration of the mechanism of action showed that bleomycin treatment damaged the mitochondrial membrane in yeast cells, leading to increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), whereas supplementation with ethanolamine helped to rescue bleomycin-induced damage. Our results indicate that bleomycin does not specifically inhibit the PS synthase enzyme; however, it may affect phospholipid biosynthesis through disruption of mitochondrial function, namely, the synthesis of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylcholine (PC), which helps cells maintain membrane composition and functionality. IMPORTANCE Invasive fungal pathogens cause significant morbidity and mortality, with over 1.5 million deaths annually. Because fungi are eukaryotes that share much of their cellular machinery with the host, our armamentarium of antifungal drugs is highly limited, with only three classes of antifungal drugs available. Drug toxicity and emerging resistance have limited their use. Hence, targeting fungi-specific enzymes that are important for fungal survival, growth, or virulence poses a strategy for novel antifungal development. In this study, we developed a heterologous expression system to screen for chemical compounds with activity against Cryptococcus phosphatidylserine synthase, Cho1, a fungi-specific enzyme that is essential for viability in C. neoformans. We confirmed the feasibility of this screen method and identified a previously unexplored role of the anticancer compound bleomycin in disrupting mitochondrial function and inhibiting phospholipid synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona Pokharel
- Public Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Paulina Konarzewska
- Public Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - Jacques Y. Roberge
- Molecular Design and Synthesis Core, Rutgers University Biomolecular Innovations Cores, Office for Research, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Gil-Soo Han
- Rutgers Center for Lipid Research, New Jersey Institute for Food, Nutrition and Health, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Yina Wang
- Public Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, USA
| | - George M. Carman
- Rutgers Center for Lipid Research, New Jersey Institute for Food, Nutrition and Health, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Chaoyang Xue
- Public Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, USA
- Rutgers Center for Lipid Research, New Jersey Institute for Food, Nutrition and Health, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey, USA
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9
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Yaakoub H, Mina S, Calenda A, Bouchara JP, Papon N. Oxidative stress response pathways in fungi. Cell Mol Life Sci 2022; 79:333. [PMID: 35648225 PMCID: PMC11071803 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-022-04353-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Fungal response to any stress is intricate, specific, and multilayered, though it employs only a few evolutionarily conserved regulators. This comes with the assumption that one regulator operates more than one stress-specific response. Although the assumption holds true, the current understanding of molecular mechanisms that drive response specificity and adequacy remains rudimentary. Deciphering the response of fungi to oxidative stress may help fill those knowledge gaps since it is one of the most encountered stress types in any kind of fungal niche. Data have been accumulating on the roles of the HOG pathway and Yap1- and Skn7-related pathways in mounting distinct and robust responses in fungi upon exposure to oxidative stress. Herein, we review recent and most relevant studies reporting the contribution of each of these pathways in response to oxidative stress in pathogenic and opportunistic fungi after giving a paralleled overview in two divergent models, the budding and fission yeasts. With the concept of stress-specific response and the importance of reactive oxygen species in fungal development, we first present a preface on the expanding domain of redox biology and oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hajar Yaakoub
- Univ Angers, Univ Brest, IRF, SFR ICAT, 49000, Angers, France
| | - Sara Mina
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Beirut Arab University, Beirut, Lebanon
| | | | | | - Nicolas Papon
- Univ Angers, Univ Brest, IRF, SFR ICAT, 49000, Angers, France.
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10
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Petricca S, Celenza G, Luzi C, Cinque B, Lizzi AR, Franceschini N, Festuccia C, Iorio R. Synergistic Activity of Ketoconazole and Miconazole with Prochloraz in Inducing Oxidative Stress, GSH Depletion, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and Apoptosis in Mouse Sertoli TM4 Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23105429. [PMID: 35628239 PMCID: PMC9140920 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23105429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Triazole and imidazole fungicides represent an emerging class of pollutants with endocrine-disrupting properties. Concerning mammalian reproduction, a possible causative role of antifungal compounds in inducing toxicity has been reported, although currently, there is little evidence about potential cooperative toxic effects. Toxicant-induced oxidative stress (OS) may be an important mechanism potentially involved in male reproductive dysfunction. Thus, to clarify the molecular mechanism underlying the effects of azoles on male reproduction, the individual and combined potential of fluconazole (FCZ), prochloraz (PCZ), miconazole (MCZ), and ketoconazole (KCZ) in triggering in vitro toxicity, redox status alterations, and OS in mouse TM4 Sertoli cells (SCs) was investigated. In the present study, we demonstrate that KCZ and MCZ, alone or in synergistic combination with PCZ, strongly impair SC functions, and this event is, at least in part, ascribed to OS. In particular, azoles-induced cytotoxicity is associated with growth inhibitory effects, G0/G1 cell cycle arrest, mitochondrial dysfunction, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, imbalance of the superoxide dismutase (SOD) specific activity, glutathione (GSH) depletion, and apoptosis. N-acetylcysteine (NAC) inhibits ROS accumulation and rescues SCs from azole-induced apoptosis. PCZ alone exhibits only cytostatic and pro-oxidant properties, while FCZ, either individually or in combination, shows no cytotoxic effects up to 320 µM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Petricca
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L’Aquila, Via Vetoio, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (S.P.); (G.C.); (C.L.); (A.R.L.); (N.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Giuseppe Celenza
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L’Aquila, Via Vetoio, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (S.P.); (G.C.); (C.L.); (A.R.L.); (N.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Carla Luzi
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L’Aquila, Via Vetoio, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (S.P.); (G.C.); (C.L.); (A.R.L.); (N.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Benedetta Cinque
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L’Aquila, Via Vetoio, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy;
| | - Anna Rita Lizzi
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L’Aquila, Via Vetoio, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (S.P.); (G.C.); (C.L.); (A.R.L.); (N.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Nicola Franceschini
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L’Aquila, Via Vetoio, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (S.P.); (G.C.); (C.L.); (A.R.L.); (N.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Claudio Festuccia
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L’Aquila, Via Vetoio, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (S.P.); (G.C.); (C.L.); (A.R.L.); (N.F.); (C.F.)
| | - Roberto Iorio
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L’Aquila, Via Vetoio, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (S.P.); (G.C.); (C.L.); (A.R.L.); (N.F.); (C.F.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel./Fax: +39-086-243-3443
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11
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Role of the anillin-like protein in growth of Cryptococcus neoformans at human host temperature. Fungal Genet Biol 2022; 160:103697. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2022.103697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 04/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Mattila H, Österman-Udd J, Mali T, Lundell T. Basidiomycota Fungi and ROS: Genomic Perspective on Key Enzymes Involved in Generation and Mitigation of Reactive Oxygen Species. FRONTIERS IN FUNGAL BIOLOGY 2022; 3:837605. [PMID: 37746164 PMCID: PMC10512322 DOI: 10.3389/ffunb.2022.837605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Our review includes a genomic survey of a multitude of reactive oxygen species (ROS) related intra- and extracellular enzymes and proteins among fungi of Basidiomycota, following their taxonomic classification within the systematic classes and orders, and focusing on different fungal lifestyles (saprobic, symbiotic, pathogenic). Intra- and extracellular ROS metabolism-involved enzymes (49 different protein families, summing 4170 protein models) were searched as protein encoding genes among 63 genomes selected according to current taxonomy. Extracellular and intracellular ROS metabolism and mechanisms in Basidiomycota are illustrated in detail. In brief, it may be concluded that differences between the set of extracellular enzymes activated by ROS, especially by H2O2, and involved in generation of H2O2, follow the differences in fungal lifestyles. The wood and plant biomass degrading white-rot fungi and the litter-decomposing species of Agaricomycetes contain the highest counts for genes encoding various extracellular peroxidases, mono- and peroxygenases, and oxidases. These findings further confirm the necessity of the multigene families of various extracellular oxidoreductases for efficient and complete degradation of wood lignocelluloses by fungi. High variations in the sizes of the extracellular ROS-involved gene families were found, however, among species with mycorrhizal symbiotic lifestyle. In addition, there are some differences among the sets of intracellular thiol-mediation involving proteins, and existence of enzyme mechanisms for quenching of intracellular H2O2 and ROS. In animal- and plant-pathogenic species, extracellular ROS enzymes are absent or rare. In these fungi, intracellular peroxidases are seemingly in minor role than in the independent saprobic, filamentous species of Basidiomycota. Noteworthy is that our genomic survey and review of the literature point to that there are differences both in generation of extracellular ROS as well as in mechanisms of response to oxidative stress and mitigation of ROS between fungi of Basidiomycota and Ascomycota.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Taina Lundell
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, Viikki Campus, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Unmasking of CgYor1-Dependent Azole Resistance Mediated by Target of Rapamycin (TOR) and Calcineurin Signaling in Candida glabrata. mBio 2022; 13:e0354521. [PMID: 35038899 PMCID: PMC8764518 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03545-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, 18 predicted membrane-localized ABC transporters of Candida glabrata were deleted individually to create a minilibrary of knockouts (KO). The transporter KOs were analyzed for their susceptibility toward antimycotic drugs. Although CgYOR1 has previously been reported to be upregulated in various azole-resistant clinical isolates of C. glabrata, deletion of this gene did not change the susceptibility to any of the tested azoles. Additionally, Cgyor1Δ showed no change in susceptibility toward oligomycin, which is otherwise a well-known substrate of Yor1 in other yeasts. The role of CgYor1 in azole susceptibility only became evident when the major transporter CgCDR1 gene was deleted. However, under nitrogen-depleted conditions, Cgyor1Δ demonstrated an azole-susceptible phenotype, independent of CgCdr1. Notably, Cgyor1Δ cells also showed increased susceptibility to target of rapamycin (TOR) and calcineurin inhibitors. Moreover, increased phytoceramide levels in Cgyor1Δ and the deletions of regulators downstream of TOR and the calcineurin signaling cascade (Cgypk1Δ, Cgypk2Δ, Cgckb1Δ, and Cgckb2Δ) in the Cgyor1Δ background and their associated fluconazole (FLC) susceptibility phenotypes confirmed their involvement. Collectively, our findings show that TOR and calcineurin signaling govern CgYor1-mediated azole susceptibility in C. glabrata. IMPORTANCE The increasing incidence of Candida glabrata infections in the last 40 years is a serious concern worldwide. These infections are usually associated with intrinsic azole resistance and increasing echinocandin resistance. Efflux pumps, especially ABC transporter upregulation, are one of the prominent mechanisms of azole resistance; however, only a few of them are characterized. In this study, we analyzed the mechanisms of azole resistance due to a multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP) subfamily ABC transporter, CgYor1. We demonstrate for the first time that CgYor1 does not transport oligomycin but is involved in azole resistance. Under normal growing conditions its function is masked by major transporter CgCdr1; however, under nitrogen-depleted conditions, it displays its azole resistance function independently. Moreover, we propose that the azole susceptibility due to removal of CgYor1 is not due to its transport function but involves modulation of TOR and calcineurin cascades.
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Jamiu AT, Albertyn J, Sebolai O, Gcilitshana O, Pohl CH. Inhibitory effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids alone or in combination with fluconazole on Candida krusei biofilms in vitro and in Caenorhabditis elegans. Med Mycol 2021; 59:1225-1237. [PMID: 34558629 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myab055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The incidence of infections by non-albicans Candida species, including Candida krusei, is increasing. Candida krusei exhibits intrinsic resistance to fluconazole and rapidly develops acquired resistance to other antifungals. Moreover, this yeast can form biofilm with increased resistance. Hence, there is a need to develop novel therapeutic strategies to combat infections caused by this pathogen. One such approach is through combination therapy with natural compounds, such as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). This study aims to investigate the effect of PUFAs on fluconazole susceptibility of C. krusei biofilms, as well as the conserved nature of these effects in the Caenorhabditis elegans infection model. C. krusei biofilms were exposed to various fatty acids as well as combinations of fluconazole and linoleic acid (LA) or gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). The effect of these treatments on biofilm formation, cell ultrastructure, membrane integrity, oxidative stress and efflux pump activity was evaluated. In addition, the ability of the PUFAs to prolong survival and reduce the fungal burden of infected C. elegans, in the absence and presence of fluconazole, was assessed. Two P|UFAs, LA and GLA had he displayed significant inhibition of C. krusei biofilms and both of them increased the susceptibility of C. krusei biofilm to fluconazole in vitro via induction of oxidative stress, cell membrane damage, and disruption of efflux pump activity. These PUFAs also extended the lifespan of infected nematodes and displayed a potentiating effect with fluconazole in this model. This may pave the way for future studies into novel antifungal drug targets and treatment options. LAY ABSTRACT The pathogenic yeast, Candida krusei, is naturally resistant to the antifungal drug, fluconazole. This study finds that polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic and gamma-linolenic acid, can inhibit C. krusei and overcome this resistance of in vitro biofilms, as well as in a nematode infection model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdullahi Temitope Jamiu
- Pathogenic Yeast Research Group, Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Jacobus Albertyn
- Pathogenic Yeast Research Group, Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Olihile Sebolai
- Pathogenic Yeast Research Group, Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Onele Gcilitshana
- Pathogenic Yeast Research Group, Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Carolina H Pohl
- Pathogenic Yeast Research Group, Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
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The NADPH Oxidase A of Verticillium dahliae Is Essential for Pathogenicity, Normal Development, and Stress Tolerance, and It Interacts with Yap1 to Regulate Redox Homeostasis. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7090740. [PMID: 34575778 PMCID: PMC8468606 DOI: 10.3390/jof7090740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Maintenance of redox homeostasis is vital for aerobic organisms and particularly relevant to plant pathogens. A balance is required between their endogenous ROS production, which is important for their development and pathogenicity, and host-derived oxidative stress. Endogenous ROS in fungi are generated by membrane-bound NADPH oxidase (NOX) complexes and the mitochondrial respiratory chain, while transcription factor Yap1 is a major regulator of the antioxidant response. Here, we investigated the roles of NoxA and Yap1 in fundamental biological processes of the important plant pathogen Verticillium dahliae. Deletion of noxA impaired growth and morphogenesis, compromised formation of hyphopodia, diminished penetration ability and pathogenicity, increased sensitivity against antifungal agents, and dysregulated expression of antioxidant genes. On the other hand, deletion of yap1 resulted in defects in conidial and microsclerotia formation, increased sensitivity against oxidative stress, and down-regulated antioxidant genes. Localized accumulation of ROS was observed before conidial fusion and during the heterokaryon incompatibility reaction upon nonself fusion. The frequency of inviable fusions was not affected by the deletion of Yap1. Analysis of a double knockout mutant revealed an epistatic relationship between noxA and yap1. Our results collectively reveal instrumental roles of NoxA and ROS homeostasis in the biology of V. dahliae.
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Staerck C, Yaakoub H, Vandeputte P, Tabiasco J, Godon C, Gastebois A, Giraud S, Guillemette T, Calenda A, Delneste Y, Fleury M, Bouchara JP. The Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-Anchored Superoxide Dismutase of Scedosporium apiospermum Protects the Conidia from Oxidative Stress. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:575. [PMID: 34356954 PMCID: PMC8304446 DOI: 10.3390/jof7070575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Scedosporium species are common fungal pathogens in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). To colonize the CF lungs, fungi must cope with the host immune response, especially the reactive oxygen species (ROS) released by phagocytic cells. To this aim, pathogens have developed various antioxidant systems, including superoxide dismutases (SODs) which constitute the first-line protection against oxidative stress. Interestingly, one of the S. apiospermum SOD-encoding genes (SODD gene) exhibits a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor-binding site and encodes a conidial-specific surface SOD. In this study, a SODDΔ mutant was engineered from a non-homologous end joining-deficient strain (KU70Δ) of S. apiospermum. Compared to its parent strain, the double mutant KU70Δ/SODDΔ exhibited increased susceptibility to various oxidizing agents and triazole antifungals. In addition, the loss of SodD resulted in an increased intracellular killing of the conidia by M1 macrophages derived from human blood monocytes, suggesting the involvement of this superoxide dismutase in the evasion to the host defenses. Nevertheless, one cannot disregard an indirect role of the enzyme in the synthesis or assembly of the cell wall components since transmission electron microscopic analysis revealed a thickening of the inner cell wall layer of the conidia. Further studies are needed to confirm the role of this enzyme in the pathogenesis of Scedosporium infections, including the production of a recombinant protein and study of its protective effect against the infection in a mouse model of scedosporiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy Staerck
- Université d’Angers, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, CHU Angers, Groupe d’Etude des Interactions Hôte-Pathogène (GEIHP, EA3142), SFR ICAT, F-49000 Angers, France; (C.S.); (H.Y.); (P.V.); (C.G.); (A.G.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (M.F.)
| | - Hajar Yaakoub
- Université d’Angers, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, CHU Angers, Groupe d’Etude des Interactions Hôte-Pathogène (GEIHP, EA3142), SFR ICAT, F-49000 Angers, France; (C.S.); (H.Y.); (P.V.); (C.G.); (A.G.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (M.F.)
| | - Patrick Vandeputte
- Université d’Angers, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, CHU Angers, Groupe d’Etude des Interactions Hôte-Pathogène (GEIHP, EA3142), SFR ICAT, F-49000 Angers, France; (C.S.); (H.Y.); (P.V.); (C.G.); (A.G.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (M.F.)
| | - Julie Tabiasco
- Université d’Angers, Université de Nantes, CHU Angers, Inserm, CRCINA, SFR ICAT, F-49000 Angers, France; (J.T.); (Y.D.)
| | - Charlotte Godon
- Université d’Angers, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, CHU Angers, Groupe d’Etude des Interactions Hôte-Pathogène (GEIHP, EA3142), SFR ICAT, F-49000 Angers, France; (C.S.); (H.Y.); (P.V.); (C.G.); (A.G.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (M.F.)
| | - Amandine Gastebois
- Université d’Angers, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, CHU Angers, Groupe d’Etude des Interactions Hôte-Pathogène (GEIHP, EA3142), SFR ICAT, F-49000 Angers, France; (C.S.); (H.Y.); (P.V.); (C.G.); (A.G.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (M.F.)
| | - Sandrine Giraud
- Université d’Angers, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, CHU Angers, Groupe d’Etude des Interactions Hôte-Pathogène (GEIHP, EA3142), SFR ICAT, F-49000 Angers, France; (C.S.); (H.Y.); (P.V.); (C.G.); (A.G.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (M.F.)
| | - Thomas Guillemette
- Université d’Angers, Institut Agro, INRAE, IRHS, SFR QUASAV, F-49000 Angers, France;
| | - Alphonse Calenda
- Université d’Angers, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, CHU Angers, Groupe d’Etude des Interactions Hôte-Pathogène (GEIHP, EA3142), SFR ICAT, F-49000 Angers, France; (C.S.); (H.Y.); (P.V.); (C.G.); (A.G.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (M.F.)
| | - Yves Delneste
- Université d’Angers, Université de Nantes, CHU Angers, Inserm, CRCINA, SFR ICAT, F-49000 Angers, France; (J.T.); (Y.D.)
| | - Maxime Fleury
- Université d’Angers, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, CHU Angers, Groupe d’Etude des Interactions Hôte-Pathogène (GEIHP, EA3142), SFR ICAT, F-49000 Angers, France; (C.S.); (H.Y.); (P.V.); (C.G.); (A.G.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (M.F.)
| | - Jean-Philippe Bouchara
- Université d’Angers, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, CHU Angers, Groupe d’Etude des Interactions Hôte-Pathogène (GEIHP, EA3142), SFR ICAT, F-49000 Angers, France; (C.S.); (H.Y.); (P.V.); (C.G.); (A.G.); (S.G.); (A.C.); (M.F.)
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Jung KW, Jung JH, Park HY. Functional Roles of Homologous Recombination and Non-Homologous End Joining in DNA Damage Response and Microevolution in Cryptococcus neoformans. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7070566. [PMID: 34356945 PMCID: PMC8307084 DOI: 10.3390/jof7070566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are the most deleterious type of DNA lesions because they cause loss of genetic information if not properly repaired. In eukaryotes, homologous recombination (HR) and non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) are required for DSB repair. However, the relationship of HR and NHEJ in DNA damage stress is unknown in the radiation-resistant fungus Cryptococcus neoformans. In this study, we found that the expression levels of HR- and NHEJ-related genes were highly induced in a Rad53-Bdr1 pathway-dependent manner under genotoxic stress. Deletion of RAD51, which is one of the main components in the HR, resulted in growth under diverse types of DNA damage stress, whereas perturbations of KU70 and KU80, which belong to the NHEJ system, did not affect the genotoxic stresses except when bleomycin was used for treatment. Furthermore, deletion of both RAD51 and KU70/80 renders cells susceptible to oxidative stress. Notably, we found that deletion of RAD51 induced a hypermutator phenotype in the fluctuation assay. In contrast to the fluctuation assay, perturbation of KU70 or KU80 induced rapid microevolution similar to that induced by the deletion of RAD51. Collectively, Rad51-mediated HR and Ku70/Ku80-mediated NHEJ regulate the DNA damage response and maintain genome stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwang-Woo Jung
- Radiation Research Division, Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup-Si 56212, Jeollabuk-Do, Korea; (J.-H.J.); (H.-Y.P.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-63-570-3337
| | - Jong-Hyun Jung
- Radiation Research Division, Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup-Si 56212, Jeollabuk-Do, Korea; (J.-H.J.); (H.-Y.P.)
- Department of Radiation Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon 34113, Korea
| | - Ha-Young Park
- Radiation Research Division, Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup-Si 56212, Jeollabuk-Do, Korea; (J.-H.J.); (H.-Y.P.)
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18
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Benelli JL, Poester VR, Munhoz LS, Klafke GB, Stevens DA, Xavier MO. In vitro anti-Cryptococcus activity of diphenyl diselenide alone and in combination with amphotericin B and fluconazole. Braz J Microbiol 2021; 52:1719-1723. [PMID: 34195915 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-021-00552-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus is an encapsulated yeast that causes fungal meningitis, most commonly in HIV patients, with high mortality rates. Thus, the study of new treatment options is relevant. Antifungal activity of organoselenium compounds attributed to their pro-oxidative effect in fungal cells has been shown given that few data regarding its anti-Cryptococcus activity are available, this in vitro study was conducted with 40 clinical isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans. Diphenyl diselenide (DD) alone, and its interaction with amphotericin B or fluconazole, was tested by microdilution and checkerboard assays. All Cryptococcus neoformans were inhibited by DD in concentrations ≤ 32 μg/mL, and fungicidal concentrations were ≤ 64 μg/mL. Advantageous interaction between fluconazole occurred in 40% of the isolates, respectively. This study contributes with data of DD alone and in combination with classical drugs of choice for cryptococcosis treatment. Further studies focused on DD antifungal mechanism of action, and in vivo experiments are necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jéssica Louise Benelli
- Mycology Laboratory, College of Medicine, Federal University of Rio Grande, Campus Saúde, Visconde de Paranaguá 102, Centro, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, 96201-900, Brazil
- Health Science Post-Graduation Program, College of Medicine, Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
- Biomedical, Clinical Analysis Laboratory (LAC) of the University Hospital Dr. Miguel Riet Correa (HU-FURG/EBSERH), Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Vanice Rodrigues Poester
- Mycology Laboratory, College of Medicine, Federal University of Rio Grande, Campus Saúde, Visconde de Paranaguá 102, Centro, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, 96201-900, Brazil
- Health Science Post-Graduation Program, College of Medicine, Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Lívia Silveira Munhoz
- Mycology Laboratory, College of Medicine, Federal University of Rio Grande, Campus Saúde, Visconde de Paranaguá 102, Centro, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, 96201-900, Brazil
- Health Science Post-Graduation Program, College of Medicine, Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Baracy Klafke
- Mycology Laboratory, College of Medicine, Federal University of Rio Grande, Campus Saúde, Visconde de Paranaguá 102, Centro, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, 96201-900, Brazil
| | - David A Stevens
- California Institute for Medical Research, San Jose, and Div. of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford Univ. Medical School, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Melissa Orzechowski Xavier
- Mycology Laboratory, College of Medicine, Federal University of Rio Grande, Campus Saúde, Visconde de Paranaguá 102, Centro, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, 96201-900, Brazil.
- Health Science Post-Graduation Program, College of Medicine, Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
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Oliveira LSDS, Pinto LM, de Medeiros MAP, Toffaletti DL, Tenor JL, Barros TF, Neves RP, Neto RGDL, Milan EP, Padovan ACB, Rocha WPDS, Perfect JR, Chaves GM. Comparison of Cryptococcus gattii/ neoformans Species Complex to Related Genera ( Papiliotrema and Naganishia) Reveal Variances in Virulence Associated Factors and Antifungal Susceptibility. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:642658. [PMID: 34277464 PMCID: PMC8281300 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.642658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcosis is an infectious disease of worldwide distribution, caused by encapsulated yeasts belonging to the phylum Basidiomycota. The genus Cryptococcus includes several species distributed around the world. The C. gattii/neoformans species complex is largely responsible for most cases of cryptococcosis. However, clinical series have been published of infections caused by Papiliotrema (Cryptococcus) laurentii and Naganishia albida (Cryptococcus albidus), among other related genera. Here, we examined the pathogenic potential and antifungal susceptibility of C. gattii/neoformans species complex (clades I and II) and related genera (Papiliotrema and Naganishia) isolated from environmental and clinical samples. P. laurentii (clade III), N. liquefasciens/N. albidosimilis (clade IV); and N. adeliensis/N. albida (clade V) strains produced higher levels of phospholipase and hemolysins, whereas the C. gattii/neoformans species complex strains (clades I and II) had markedly thicker capsules, produced more biofilm biomass and melanin, which are known virulence attributes. Interestingly, 40% of C. neoformans strains (clade II) had MICs above the ECV established for this species to amphotericin B. Several non-C. gattii/neoformans species complex (clades III to V) had MICs equal to or above the ECVs established for C. deuterogattii and C. neoformans for all the three antifungal drugs tested. Finally, all the non-C. gattii/neoformans clinical isolates (clades III to V) produced more melanin than the environmental isolates might reflect their particularly enhanced need for melanin during in vivo protection. It is very clear that C. gattii/neoformans species complex (clades I and II) strains, in general, show more similar virulence phenotypes between each other when compared to non-C. gattii/neoformans species complex (clades III to V) isolates. These observations together with the fact that P. laurentii and Naganishia spp. (clades III to V) strains were collected from the outside of a University Hospital, identify features of these yeasts important for environmental and patient colonization and furthermore, define mechanisms for infections with these uncommon pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lana Sarita de Souza Oliveira
- Laboratory of Medical and Molecular Mycology, Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
| | - Luciana Magalhães Pinto
- Laboratory of Medical and Molecular Mycology, Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
| | - Mariana Araújo Paulo de Medeiros
- Laboratory of Medical and Molecular Mycology, Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
| | - Dena L Toffaletti
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Jennifer L Tenor
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Tânia Fraga Barros
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
| | | | | | - Eveline Pipolo Milan
- Department of Infectology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
| | | | | | - John R Perfect
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Guilherme Maranhão Chaves
- Laboratory of Medical and Molecular Mycology, Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
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20
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Carlson T, Lupinacci E, Moseley K, Chandrasekaran S. Effects of environmental factors on sensitivity of Cryptococcus neoformans to fluconazole and amphotericin B. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2021; 368:6240154. [PMID: 33877319 PMCID: PMC8093136 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnab040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans is a leading cause of fungal meningitis in immunocompromized populations. Amphotericin B (AMB) and fluconazole (FLC) are common anticryptococcal agents. AMB treatment leads to severe side-effects. In contrast, FLC-based therapy is relatively safe, although C. neoformans often develops resistance to this drug. C. neoformans must adapt to the challenging environment of the human host. Environmental effects on potency of AMB and FLC and development of drug resistance remain poorly characterized. Here, the effects of nutrients, temperature and antioxidants on susceptibility of C. neoformans towards FLC and AMB were investigated. Limited nutrients led to a decrease and an increase of sensitivity towards FLC and AMB, respectively. Co-treatment with various antioxidants also demonstrated reciprocal effects on susceptibility towards FLC and AMB. In contrast, elevated temperature increased the efficacy of both drugs, although the effect on FLC was more drastic as compared to that of AMB. In addition, temperatures of 37°C and above prevented development of FLC resistance. Our study pointed to a critical role of the environment on susceptibility towards AMB and FLC and revealed reciprocal effects towards these antifungal drugs, reflecting contrasting modes of action of AMB and FLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler Carlson
- Department of Biology, Furman University, 3300 Poinsett Highway, Townes 171-G, Greenville SC 29613, USA
| | - Emily Lupinacci
- Department of Biology, Furman University, 3300 Poinsett Highway, Townes 171-G, Greenville SC 29613, USA
| | - Katie Moseley
- Department of Biology, Furman University, 3300 Poinsett Highway, Townes 171-G, Greenville SC 29613, USA
| | - Srikripa Chandrasekaran
- Department of Biology, Furman University, 3300 Poinsett Highway, Townes 171-G, Greenville SC 29613, USA
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Gong Y, Tian C, Lu S, Gao Y, Wen L, Chen B, Gao H, Zhang H, Zhao J, Wang J. Harmine Combined with Rad54 Knockdown Inhibits the Viability of Echinococcus granulosus by Enhancing DNA Damage. DNA Cell Biol 2020; 40:1-9. [PMID: 33170025 DOI: 10.1089/dna.2020.5779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed at exploring the role of EgRad54 and the effect of harmine (HM) or HM derivatives (HMDs) on DNA damage in Echinococcus granulosus. DNA damage in E. granulosus protoscoleces (PSCs) was assessed by using a comet assay, after treatment with HM or HMDs. Efficiency of electroporation-based transfection of PSCs and subsequent EgRad54 knockdown was evaluated by using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and fluorescence intensity. Viability of PSCs was determined via eosin exclusion test, and expression of related genes was analyzed via RT-qPCR. HM and HMDs significantly (p < 0.05) increased DNA damage in E. granulosus, and upregulated EgRad54 expression. Compared with HM and HMD-only treatment groups, EgRad54 knockdown combined with HM and HMD treatment further reduced E. granulosus viability. This combined approach resulted in significant (p < 0.05) downregulation of Rad54 and Topo2a expression, and upregulation of ATM expression, whereas H2A and P53 expression was significantly higher compared with control groups. These data show that EgRad54 knockdown, combined with HM or HMD treatment, enhances DNA damage in E. granulosus via upregulation of ATM and H2A, and downregulation of Rad54 and Topo2a, thereby inhibiting E. granulosus growth, and suggest that EgRad54 is a potential therapeutic target for cystic echinococcosis treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuehong Gong
- First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central Asia, Xinjiang Medical University, First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Chunyan Tian
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Shuai Lu
- First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central Asia, Xinjiang Medical University, First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Yi Gao
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Limei Wen
- First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central Asia, Xinjiang Medical University, First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Bei Chen
- First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central Asia, Xinjiang Medical University, First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Huijing Gao
- First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central Asia, Xinjiang Medical University, First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Haibo Zhang
- First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central Asia, Xinjiang Medical University, First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Jun Zhao
- First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central Asia, Xinjiang Medical University, First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Jianhua Wang
- First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of High Incidence Diseases in Central Asia, Xinjiang Medical University, First Affiliated Hospital of Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China
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22
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Hunsaker EW, Franz KJ. Candida albicans reprioritizes metal handling during fluconazole stress. Metallomics 2020; 11:2020-2032. [PMID: 31709426 DOI: 10.1039/c9mt00228f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Maintenance of metal homeostasis is critical to cell survival due to the multitude of cellular processes that depend on one or more metal cofactors. Here, we show that the opportunistic fungal pathogen Candida albicans extensively remodels its metal homeostasis networks to respond to treatment with the antifungal drug fluconazole. Disruption of the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway by fluconazole requires C. albicans adaptation, including increased Cu import and storage, increased retention of Fe, Mn, and Zn, altered utilization of Cu- and Mn-dependent enzymes, mobilization of Fe stores, and increased production of the heme prosthetic group utilized by the enzyme target of fluconazole. The findings offer a new perspective for thinking about fungal response to drug stress that pushes cells out of their metal homeostatic zones, leading them to enact metal-associated adaptation mechanisms to restore homeostasis to survive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth W Hunsaker
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, French Family Science Center, 124 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA.
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23
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Ghaffar M, Orr C, Webb G. Antiphagocytic protein 1 increases the susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans to amphotericin B and fluconazole. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0225701. [PMID: 31800598 PMCID: PMC6892493 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0225701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans is a facultative intracellular pathogen responsible for the most common cause of fungal meningioencephalitis, occurring primarily in immunocompromised individuals. Antiphagocytic protein 1 (App1) is a virulence factor produced by C. neoformans that inhibits phagocytosis of the yeast by host macrophages. Treatment of cryptococcosis includes amphotericin B, fluconazole, and flucytosine. Virulence factors have been shown to affect the susceptibility of the pathogen to antifungal drugs. In this study, we aimed to examine the relationship between App1 and antifungal drugs. We found that short-term exposure to amphotericin B downregulates APP1 expression while exposure to fluconazole upregulates APP1. In addition, App1 was found to increase the susceptibility of the yeast to amphotericin B and fluconazole. This study provides evidence of an intricate relationship between App1 and antifungal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Ghaffar
- Division of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of South Carolina Upstate, Spartanburg, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Cody Orr
- Division of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of South Carolina Upstate, Spartanburg, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Ginny Webb
- Division of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of South Carolina Upstate, Spartanburg, South Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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24
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Zafar H, Altamirano S, Ballou ER, Nielsen K. A titanic drug resistance threat in Cryptococcus neoformans. Curr Opin Microbiol 2019; 52:158-164. [PMID: 31765991 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2019.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Increasing resistance to frontline antifungals is a growing threat to global health. In the face of high rates of relapse for patients with cryptococcal meningitis and frequent drug resistance in clinical isolates, recent insights into Cryptococcus neoformans morphogenesis and genome plasticity take on new and urgent meaning. Here we review the state of the understanding of mechanisms of drug resistance in the context of host-relevant changes in Cryptococcus morphology and cell ploidy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Zafar
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Sophie Altamirano
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455 USA
| | - Elizabeth R Ballou
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Kirsten Nielsen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455 USA.
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25
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Dbouk NH, Covington MB, Nguyen K, Chandrasekaran S. Increase of reactive oxygen species contributes to growth inhibition by fluconazole in Cryptococcus neoformans. BMC Microbiol 2019; 19:243. [PMID: 31694529 PMCID: PMC6833255 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-019-1606-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cryptococcus neoformans, a basidiomycetous yeast, is a fungal pathogen that can colonize the lungs of humans causing pneumonia and fungal meningitis in severely immunocompromised individuals. Recent studies have implied that the antifungal drug fluconazole (FLC) can induce oxidative stress in C. neoformans by increasing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as presence of the antioxidant ascorbic acid (AA) could reverse the inhibitory effects of FLC on C. neoformans. However, in Candida albicans, AA has been shown to stimulate the expression of genes essential for ergosterol biosynthesis. Hence, the contribution of ROS in FLC-mediated growth inhibition remains unclear. Results In order to determine whether counteracting ROS generated by FLC in C. neoformans can contribute to diminishing inhibitory effects of FLC, we tested three other antioxidants in addition to AA, namely, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC), retinoic acid (RA), and glutathione (GSH). Our data confirm that there is an increase in ROS in the presence of FLC in C. neoformans. Importantly, all four antioxidants reversed FLC-mediated growth inhibition of C. neoformans to various extents. We further verified the involvement of increased ROS in FLC-mediated growth inhibition by determining that ROS-scavenging proteins, metallothioneins (CMT1 and CMT2), contribute to growth recovery by PDTC and AA during treatment with FLC. Conclusion Our study suggests that ROS contributes to FLC-mediated growth inhibition and points to a complex nature of antioxidant-mediated growth rescue in the presence of FLC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kenny Nguyen
- Department of Biology, Furman University, Greenville, SC, USA
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26
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Zhan W, Liao X, Li L, Chen Z, Tian T, Yu L, Chen Z. In vitro mitochondrial-targeted antioxidant peptide induces apoptosis in cancer cells. Onco Targets Ther 2019; 12:7297-7306. [PMID: 31686844 PMCID: PMC6738130 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s207640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are major contributors to cancer and involved in numerous tumor proliferation signaling pathways. Mitochondria are the major ROS-producing organelles, and ROS are produced from the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate and cell metabolism. Methods A novel mitochondria-targeted peptide, namely KRSH, was synthesized and characterized. KRSH consists of four amino acids; lysine and arginine contain positively charged groups that help KRSH target the mitochondria, while tyrosine and cysteine neutralize excessive endogenous ROS, thereby inhibiting tumorigenesis. Results The results indicated that KRSH is specifically inhibiting the growth of HeLa and MCF-7 cancer cell lines. However, MCF10A cells can resist the effects of KRSH even in a relative higher concentration. The dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate and MitoSOXTM Red assay suggested that KRSH drastically decreased the level of ROS in cancer cells. The mitochondrial depolarization assay indicated that treatment with KRSH at a dose of 50 nM may decrease the mitochondrial membrane potential leading to apoptosis of HeLa and MCF-7 cells. Conclusion In other studies, investigating rat liver mitochondria, the uptake of KRSH may reach 80% compared with that for mitoquinone. Therefore, KRSH was designed as a superior peptide antioxidant and a mitochondria-targeting anticancer agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhan
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 550004, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Liao
- Department of Imaging, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 550004, People's Republic of China
| | - Lianghe Li
- Department of Surgery, Clinical Medical College, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 550004, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhongsheng Chen
- Department of Surgery, Clinical Medical College, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 550004, People's Republic of China
| | - Tian Tian
- Department of Pathophysiology, Basic Medical College, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang 550004, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Yu
- Department of Pathology, Guiyang Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Guiyang 550004, People's Republic of China
| | - Zupeng Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310006, People's Republic of China
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