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Rabanel JM, Mirbagheri M, Olszewski M, Xie G, Le Goas M, Latreille PL, Counil H, Hervé V, Silva RO, Zaouter C, Adibnia V, Acevedo M, Servant MJ, Martinez VA, Patten SA, Matyjaszewski K, Ramassamy C, Banquy X. Deep Tissue Penetration of Bottle-Brush Polymers via Cell Capture Evasion and Fast Diffusion. ACS NANO 2022; 16:21583-21599. [PMID: 36516979 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c10554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Drug nanocarriers (NCs) capable of crossing the vascular endothelium and deeply penetrating into dense tissues of the CNS could potentially transform the management of neurological diseases. In the present study, we investigated the interaction of bottle-brush (BB) polymers with different biological barriers in vitro and in vivo and compared it to nanospheres of similar composition. In vitro internalization and permeability assays revealed that BB polymers are not internalized by brain-associated cell lines and translocate much faster across a blood-brain barrier model compared to nanospheres of similar hydrodynamic diameter. These observations performed under static, no-flow conditions were complemented by dynamic assays performed in microvessel arrays on chip and confirmed that BB polymers can escape the vasculature compartment via a paracellular route. BB polymers injected in mice and zebrafish larvae exhibit higher penetration in brain tissues and faster extravasation of microvessels located in the brain compared to nanospheres of similar sizes. The superior diffusivity of BBs in extracellular matrix-like gels combined with their ability to efficiently cross endothelial barriers via a paracellular route position them as promising drug carriers to translocate across the blood-brain barrier and penetrate dense tissue such as the brain, two unmet challenges and ultimate frontiers in nanomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Michel Rabanel
- INRS Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, 531, boul. des Prairies, Laval, QC, Canada H7V 1B7
- Faculté de pharmacie, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3J7
| | - Marziye Mirbagheri
- Faculté de pharmacie, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3J7
| | - Mateusz Olszewski
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States 15213-3815
| | - Guojun Xie
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States 15213-3815
| | - Marine Le Goas
- Faculté de pharmacie, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3J7
| | - Pierre-Luc Latreille
- Faculté de pharmacie, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3J7
| | - Hermine Counil
- INRS Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, 531, boul. des Prairies, Laval, QC, Canada H7V 1B7
| | - Vincent Hervé
- INRS Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, 531, boul. des Prairies, Laval, QC, Canada H7V 1B7
| | - Rummenigge Oliveira Silva
- INRS Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, 531, boul. des Prairies, Laval, QC, Canada H7V 1B7
| | - Charlotte Zaouter
- INRS Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, 531, boul. des Prairies, Laval, QC, Canada H7V 1B7
| | - Vahid Adibnia
- Faculté de pharmacie, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3J7
| | - Mariana Acevedo
- Faculté de pharmacie, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3J7
| | - Marc J Servant
- Faculté de pharmacie, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3J7
| | - Vincent A Martinez
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh, United Kingdom EH9 3FD
| | - Shunmoogum A Patten
- INRS Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, 531, boul. des Prairies, Laval, QC, Canada H7V 1B7
| | - Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States 15213-3815
| | - Charles Ramassamy
- INRS Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, 531, boul. des Prairies, Laval, QC, Canada H7V 1B7
| | - Xavier Banquy
- Faculté de pharmacie, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, Canada H3C 3J7
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Lin L, Zhang J, Dai X, Xiao N, Ye Q, Chen X. A Moderate Duration of Stress Promotes Behavioral Adaptation and Spatial Memory in Young C57BL/6J Mice. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12081081. [PMID: 36009144 PMCID: PMC9405600 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12081081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress may serve multiple roles in cerebral functioning, ranging from a highly appropriate behavioral adaptation to a critical risk factor for susceptibility to mood disorder and cognitive impairment. It is well known that E/I (excitation/inhibition) balance is essential for maintaining brain homeostasis. However, it remains largely unknown how GABAergic and Glutamatergic neurons respond to different stressful stimuli and whether the GABAergic-Glutamatergic neuron balance is related to the transition between adaptive and maladaptive behaviors. Here, we subjected 3-month-old mice to chronic mild stress (CMS) for a period of one, two, and four weeks, respectively. The results showed that the two-week CMS procedure produced adaptive effects on behaviors and cognitive performance, with a higher number of GABAergic neuron and VGluT1-positive neurons, increasing the expressions of p-GluN2B, Reelin, and syn-PSD-95 protein in the hippocampus. In contrast, the prolonged behavioral challenge (4 week) imposes a passive coping behavioral strategy and cognitive impairment, decreased the number of GABAergic neuron, hyperactivity of VGluT1-positive neuron, increased the ratio of p-GluN2B, and decreased the expression of Reelin, syn-PSD-95 in the hippocampus. These findings suggest that a moderate duration of stress probably promotes behavioral adaptation and spatial memory by maintaining a GABAergic-Glutamatergic neuron balance and promoting the expression of synaptic plasticity-related proteins in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lanyan Lin
- Department of Geriatrics, Fujian Provincial Hospital, 134 Dongjie Road, Fuzhou 350001, China
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Institute of Neuroscience, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350005, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Institute of Neuroscience, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350005, China
- Department of Neurology, Fujian Institute of Geriatrics, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou 350001, China
| | - Xiaoman Dai
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Institute of Neuroscience, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350005, China
- Department of Neurology, Fujian Institute of Geriatrics, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou 350001, China
| | - Nai’an Xiao
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Institute of Neuroscience, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350005, China
- Department of Neurology, Fujian Institute of Geriatrics, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou 350001, China
| | - Qinyong Ye
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Institute of Neuroscience, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350005, China
- Department of Neurology, Fujian Institute of Geriatrics, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou 350001, China
| | - Xiaochun Chen
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Institute of Neuroscience, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350005, China
- Department of Neurology, Fujian Institute of Geriatrics, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou 350001, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-591-8333-3995; Fax: +86-591-8337-0393
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A Microglial Function for the Nerve Growth Factor: Predictions of the Unpredictable. Cells 2022; 11:cells11111835. [PMID: 35681529 PMCID: PMC9180430 DOI: 10.3390/cells11111835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 05/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are the only immune cell population present in the brain parenchyma. Their vantage position in the central nervous system (CNS) enables these myeloid cells to perform the most disparate of tasks: from the classical immune functions of fighting infections and surveilling the extracellular space for pathogens and damage, to sculpting the neuronal circuitry by pruning unnecessary synapses and assisting neurons in spine formation, aiding in the maintenance of brain homeostasis. The neurotrophin field has always been dominated by the neurocentric view that the primary target of these molecules must be neurons: this holds true even for the Nerve Growth Factor (NGF), which owes its popularity in the neuroscience community to its trophic and tropic activity towards sensory and sympathetic neurons in the peripheral nervous system, and cholinergic neurons in the CNS. The increasing evidence that microglia are an integral part of neuronal computation calls for a closer look as to whether these glial cells are capable of responding directly to NGF. In this review, we will first outline evidence in support of a role for NGF as a molecule mediating neuroimmune communication. Then, we will illustrate some of those non-immune features that have made microglial cells one of the hottest topics of this last decade. In conclusion, we will discuss evidence in support of a microglial function for NGF.
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Xhima K, Markham-Coultes K, Kofoed RH, Saragovi HU, Hynynen K, Aubert I. Ultrasound delivery of a TrkA agonist confers neuroprotection to Alzheimer-associated pathologies. Brain 2021; 145:2806-2822. [PMID: 34919633 PMCID: PMC9420023 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awab460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Early degeneration of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) contributes substantially to cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Evidence from preclinical models of neuronal injury and aging support a pivotal role for nerve growth factor (NGF) in neuroprotection, resilience, and cognitive function. However, whether NGF can provide therapeutic benefit in the presence of AD-related pathologies remains unresolved. Perturbations in the NGF signaling system in AD may render neurons unable to benefit from NGF administration. Additionally, challenges related to brain delivery remain for clinical translation of NGF-based therapies in AD. To be safe and efficient, NGF-related agents should stimulate the NGF receptor, tropomyosin receptor kinase A (TrkA), avoid activation through the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR), and be delivered non-invasively to targeted brain areas using real-time monitoring. We addressed these limitations using MRI-guided focused ultrasound (MRIgFUS) to increase blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability locally and transiently, allowing an intravenously administered TrkA agonist that does not activate p75NTR, termed D3, to enter targeted brain areas. Here, we report the therapeutic potential of selective TrkA activation in a transgenic mouse model that recapitulates numerous AD-associated pathologies. Repeated MRIgFUS-mediated delivery of D3 (D3/FUS) improved cognitive function in the TgCRND8 model of AD. Mechanistically, D3/FUS treatment effectively attenuated cholinergic degeneration and promoted functional recovery. D3/FUS treatment also resulted in widespread reduction of brain amyloid pathology and dystrophic neurites surrounding amyloid plaques. Furthermore, D3/FUS markedly enhanced hippocampal neurogenesis in TgCRND8 mice, implicating TrkA agonism as a novel therapeutic target to promote neurogenesis in the context of AD-related pathology. Thus, this study provides evidence that selective TrkA agonism confers neuroprotection to effectively counteract AD-related vulnerability. Recent clinical trials demonstrate that non-invasive BBB modulation using MRIgFUS is safe, feasible and reversible in AD patients. TrkA receptor agonists coupled with MRIgFUS delivery constitute a promising disease-modifying strategy to foster brain health and counteract cognitive decline in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristiana Xhima
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, M4N 3M5, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Kelly Markham-Coultes
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, M4N 3M5, Canada
| | - Rikke Hahn Kofoed
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, M4N 3M5, Canada
| | - H. Uri Saragovi
- Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC, H3T 1E2, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
- Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H4A 3S5, Canada
| | - Kullervo Hynynen
- Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, M4N 3M5, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Isabelle Aubert
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, M4N 3M5, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A8, Canada
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Vazquez-Roque R, Pacheco-Flores M, Penagos-Corzo JC, Flores G, Aguilera J, Treviño S, Guevara J, Diaz A, Venegas B. The C-terminal fragment of the heavy chain of the tetanus toxin (Hc-TeTx) improves motor activity and neuronal morphology in the limbic system of aged mice. Synapse 2020; 75:e22193. [PMID: 33141999 DOI: 10.1002/syn.22193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 10/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In the aging process, the brain presents biochemical and morphological alterations. The neurons of the limbic system show reduced size dendrites, in addition to the loss of dendritic spines. These disturbances trigger a decrease in motor and cognitive function. Likewise, it is reported that during aging, in the brain, there is a significant decrease in neurotrophic factors, which are essential in promoting the survival and plasticity of neurons. The carboxyl-terminal fragment of the heavy chain of the tetanus toxin (Hc-TeTx) acts similarly to neurotrophic factors, inducing neuroprotection in different models of neuronal damage. The aim here, was to evaluate the effect of Hc-TeTx on the motor processes of elderly mice (18 months old), and its impact on the dendritic morphology and density of dendritic spines of neurons in the limbic system. The morphological analysis in the dendrites was evaluated employing Golgi-Cox staining. Hc-TeTx was administered (0.5 mg/kg) intraperitoneally for three days in 18-month-old mice. Locomotor activity was evaluated in a novel environment 30 days after the last administration of Hc-TeTx. Mice treated with Hc-TeTx showed significant changes in their motor behavior, and an increased dendritic spine density of pyramidal neurons in layers 3 and 5 of the prefrontal cortex in the hippocampus, and medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens (NAcc). In conclusion, the Hc-TeTx improves the plasticity of the brain regions of the limbic system of aged mice. Therefore, it is proposed as a pharmacological alternative to prevent or delay brain damage during aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben Vazquez-Roque
- Neuropsychiatry Laboratory, Institute of Physiology, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, México
| | | | | | - Gonzalo Flores
- Neuropsychiatry Laboratory, Institute of Physiology, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, México
| | - José Aguilera
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain.,Networked Biomedical Research Center on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Samuel Treviño
- Faculty of Chemical Sciences, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico
| | - Jorge Guevara
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Alfonso Diaz
- Faculty of Chemical Sciences, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico
| | - Berenice Venegas
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, México
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Illendula M, Osuru HP, Ferrarese B, Atluri N, Dulko E, Zuo Z, Lunardi N. Surgery, Anesthesia and Intensive Care Environment Induce Delirium-Like Behaviors and Impairment of Synaptic Function-Related Gene Expression in Aged Mice. Front Aging Neurosci 2020; 12:542421. [PMID: 33088271 PMCID: PMC7544741 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.542421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective To establish a clinically relevant mouse model of perioperative delirium. Methods Aged C57BL/6J mice were tested at baseline in the Y-maze novel arm preference, buried food, simple discrimination task of the attentional set-shifting test, and open field tests. They were subsequently randomized to insult (anesthesia, surgery, and Intensive Care Unit environment) or control group. Insult-exposed mice received laparotomy under sevoflurane anesthesia, propofol sedation and exposure to intermittent lights, sounds and cage shaking. Controls did not receive anesthesia, surgery, or intensive care environment. All mice were tested in the Y-maze novel arm preference, buried food, attentional, and open field tests at the end of intensive care environment (0 h) and every 6 h up to 24 h. Mouse hippocampi were collected at 24 h for gene expression analyses. Results Surgery, anesthesia and Intensive Care environment decreased the entries in the Y-maze novel arm at 0 h (P = 0.001), 6 h (P < 0.001), 18 h (P = 0.002), and 24 h (P = 0.029). Insult exposure increased the latency to find a buried cereal reward at 18 h (P = 0.035) and 24 h (P = 0.027), and increased the trials to criterion in the reverse compound discrimination (P = 0.013) and extradimensional shift (P < 0.001) tasks of the attentional test. The overall incidence of delirium was 72% in A/S/I mice. Messenger RNA levels of synuclein alpha (-3.785 fold change relative to controls), Neurotrophic Receptor Tyrosine Kinase1 (-2.267), and syntaxin1a (-1.498) were decreased in the hippocampus of mice 24 h after insult exposure. Protein levels of syntaxin 1a (P = 0.012), Neurotrophic Receptor Tyrosine Kinase1 (P = 0.039), synuclein alpha (P = 0.017), phosphorylated synuclein alpha (P = 0.008), synaptophysin (P = 0.002), postsynaptic density protein 95 (P = 0.003), and microtubule-associated protein 2 (P = 0.013) were also decreased, relative to controls. Conclusion Surgery, anesthesia and Intensive Care environment impaired mouse behaviors that depend on attention, memory, and thought organization. The changes were acute in onset and fluctuating in time. Mice with delirium exhibited decreased expression of key synaptic function-related genes. The behavioral changes induced by anesthesia, surgery, and Intensive Care environment in aged mice are consistent with the clinical features of human delirium, and support the use of this animal model for future mechanistic studies of perioperative delirium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghana Illendula
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Hari Prasad Osuru
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Bianca Ferrarese
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Navya Atluri
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Elzbieta Dulko
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Zhiyi Zuo
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Nadia Lunardi
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, United States
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Xhima K, Markham-Coultes K, Nedev H, Heinen S, Saragovi HU, Hynynen K, Aubert I. Focused ultrasound delivery of a selective TrkA agonist rescues cholinergic function in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eaax6646. [PMID: 32010781 PMCID: PMC6976301 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aax6646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The degeneration of cholinergic neurons is a prominent feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In animal models of injury and aging, nerve growth factor (NGF) enhances cholinergic cell survival and function, contributing to improved memory. In the presence of AD pathology, however, NGF-related therapeutics have yet to fulfill their regenerative potential. We propose that stimulating the TrkA receptor, without p75NTR activation, is key for therapeutic efficacy. Supporting this hypothesis, the selective TrkA agonist D3 rescued neurotrophin signaling in TgCRND8 mice, whereas NGF, interacting with both TrkA and p75NTR, did not. D3, delivered intravenously and noninvasively to the basal forebrain using MRI-guided focused ultrasound (MRIgFUS)-mediated blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability activated TrkA-related signaling cascades and enhanced cholinergic neurotransmission. Recent clinical trials support the safety and feasibility of MRIgFUS BBB modulation in AD patients. Neuroprotective agents targeting TrkA, combined with MRIgFUS BBB modulation, represent a promising strategy to counter neurodegeneration in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Xhima
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - K. Markham-Coultes
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - H. Nedev
- Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - S. Heinen
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - H. U. Saragovi
- Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - K. Hynynen
- Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - I. Aubert
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Research Program, Biological Sciences, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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