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Wimmi S, Fleck M, Helbig C, Brianceau C, Langenfeld K, Szymanski WG, Angelidou G, Glatter T, Diepold A. Pilotins are mobile T3SS components involved in assembly and substrate specificity of the bacterial type III secretion system. Mol Microbiol 2024; 121:304-323. [PMID: 38178634 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.15223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
In animal pathogens, assembly of the type III secretion system injectisome requires the presence of so-called pilotins, small lipoproteins that assist the formation of the secretin ring in the outer membrane. Using a combination of functional assays, interaction studies, proteomics, and live-cell microscopy, we determined the contribution of the pilotin to the assembly, function, and substrate selectivity of the T3SS and identified potential new downstream roles of pilotin proteins. In absence of its pilotin SctG, Yersinia enterocolitica forms few, largely polar injectisome sorting platforms and needles. Accordingly, most export apparatus subcomplexes are mobile in these strains, suggesting the absence of fully assembled injectisomes. Remarkably, while absence of the pilotin all but prevents export of early T3SS substrates, such as the needle subunits, it has little effect on secretion of late T3SS substrates, including the virulence effectors. We found that although pilotins interact with other injectisome components such as the secretin in the outer membrane, they mostly localize in transient mobile clusters in the bacterial membrane. Together, these findings provide a new view on the role of pilotins in the assembly and function of type III secretion injectisomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Wimmi
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Moritz Fleck
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Carlos Helbig
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Corentin Brianceau
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Katja Langenfeld
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Witold G Szymanski
- Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Facility, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Georgia Angelidou
- Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Facility, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Timo Glatter
- Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Facility, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Diepold
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
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2
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Diepold A. Defining Assembly Pathways by Fluorescence Microscopy. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2715:383-394. [PMID: 37930541 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3445-5_24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial secretion systems are among the largest protein complexes in prokaryotes and display remarkably complex architectures. Their assembly often follows clearly defined pathways. Deciphering these pathways not only reveals how bacteria accomplish to build these large functional complexes but can provide crucial information on the interactions and subcomplexes within secretion systems, their distribution within the bacterium, and even functional insights. Fluorescence microscopy provides a powerful tool for biological imaging, which presents an interesting method to accurately define the biogenesis of macromolecular complexes using fluorescently labeled components. Here, I describe the use of this method to decipher the assembly pathway of bacterial secretion systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Diepold
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany.
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3
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Case HB, Gonzalez S, Gustafson ME, Dickenson NE. Differential regulation of Shigella Spa47 ATPase activity by a native C-terminal product of Spa33. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1183211. [PMID: 37389216 PMCID: PMC10302723 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1183211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Shigella is a Gram-negative bacterial pathogen that relies on a single type three secretion system (T3SS) as its primary virulence factor. The T3SS includes a highly conserved needle-like apparatus that directly injects bacterial effector proteins into host cells, subverting host cell function, initiating infection, and circumventing resulting host immune responses. Recent findings have located the T3SS ATPase Spa47 to the base of the Shigella T3SS apparatus and have correlated its catalytic function to apparatus formation, protein effector secretion, and overall pathogen virulence. This critical correlation makes Spa47 ATPase activity regulation a likely point of native control over Shigella virulence and a high interest target for non-antibiotic- based therapeutics. Here, we provide a detailed characterization of the natural 11.6 kDa C-terminal translation product of the Shigella T3SS protein Spa33 (Spa33C), showing that it is required for proper virulence and that it pulls down with several known T3SS proteins, consistent with a structural role within the sorting platform of the T3SS apparatus. In vitro binding assays and detailed kinetic analyses suggest an additional role, however, as Spa33C differentially regulates Spa47 ATPase activity based on Spa47s oligomeric state, downregulating Spa47 monomer activity and upregulating activity of both homo-oligomeric Spa47 and the hetero-oligomeric MxiN2Spa47 complex. These findings identify Spa33C as only the second known differential T3SS ATPase regulator to date, with the Shigella protein MxiN representing the other. Describing this differential regulatory protein pair begins to close an important gap in understanding of how Shigella may modulate virulence through Spa47 activity and T3SS function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Nicholas E. Dickenson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States
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Hardy KD, Dickenson NE. Phosphomimetic Tyrosine Mutations in Spa47 Inhibit Type Three Secretion ATPase Activity and Shigella Virulence Phenotype. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11020202. [PMID: 35215145 PMCID: PMC8876561 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11020202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Shigella is a highly infectious human pathogen responsible for 269 million infections and 200,000 deaths per year. Shigella virulence is absolutely reliant on the injection of effector proteins into the host cell cytoplasm via its type three secretion system (T3SS). The protein Spa47 is a T3SS ATPase whose activity is essential for the proper function of the Shigella T3SS needle-like apparatus through which effectors are secreted. A phosphoproteomics study recently found several Shigella T3SS proteins, including Spa47, to be tyrosine phosphorylated, suggesting a means of regulating Spa47 enzymatic activity, T3SS function, and overall Shigella virulence. The work presented here employs phosphomimetic mutations in Spa47 to probe the effects of phosphorylation at these targeted tyrosines through in vitro radiometric ATPase assays and circular dichroism as well as in vivo characterization of T3SS secretion activity, erythrocyte hemolysis, and cellular invasion. Results presented here demonstrate a direct correlation between Spa47 tyrosine phosphorylation state, Spa47 ATPase activity, T3SS function, and Shigella virulence. Together, these findings provide a strong foundation that leads the way to uncovering the specific pathway(s) that Shigella employ to mitigate wasteful ATP hydrolysis and effector protein secretion when not required as well as T3SS activation in preparation for host infection and immune evasion.
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5
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Dickenson NE. Past, present, and future: Dissecting the bacterial type III secretion system: Comment on "An elegant nano-injection machinery for sabotaging the host: Role of Type III secretion system in virulence of different human and animal pathogenic bacteria" by Hajra, Nair and Chakravortty. Phys Life Rev 2021; 39:82-84. [PMID: 34452848 DOI: 10.1016/j.plrev.2021.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas E Dickenson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, United States.
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6
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Wimmi S, Balinovic A, Jeckel H, Selinger L, Lampaki D, Eisemann E, Meuskens I, Linke D, Drescher K, Endesfelder U, Diepold A. Dynamic relocalization of cytosolic type III secretion system components prevents premature protein secretion at low external pH. Nat Commun 2021; 12:1625. [PMID: 33712575 PMCID: PMC7954860 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-21863-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Many bacterial pathogens use a type III secretion system (T3SS) to manipulate host cells. Protein secretion by the T3SS injectisome is activated upon contact to any host cell, and it has been unclear how premature secretion is prevented during infection. Here we report that in the gastrointestinal pathogens Yersinia enterocolitica and Shigella flexneri, cytosolic injectisome components are temporarily released from the proximal interface of the injectisome at low external pH, preventing protein secretion in acidic environments, such as the stomach. We show that in Yersinia enterocolitica, low external pH is detected in the periplasm and leads to a partial dissociation of the inner membrane injectisome component SctD, which in turn causes the dissociation of the cytosolic T3SS components. This effect is reversed upon restoration of neutral pH, allowing a fast activation of the T3SS at the native target regions within the host. These findings indicate that the cytosolic components form an adaptive regulatory interface, which regulates T3SS activity in response to environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Wimmi
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Alexander Balinovic
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
- Department of Physics, Mellon College of Science, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Hannah Jeckel
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
- Department of Physics, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Lisa Selinger
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Dimitrios Lampaki
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
- Max-Planck-Institut für Immunbiologie und Epigenetik, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Emma Eisemann
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
- James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA, USA
| | - Ina Meuskens
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Dirk Linke
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Knut Drescher
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
- Department of Physics, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Ulrike Endesfelder
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
- Department of Physics, Mellon College of Science, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Andreas Diepold
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany.
- SYNMIKRO, LOEWE Center for Synthetic Microbiology, Marburg, Germany.
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Gan YL, Yang LY, Yang LC, Li WL, Liang XL, Jiang W, Jiang GF, Hang XH, Yang M, Tang JL, Jiang BL. The C-terminal domain of the type III secretion chaperone HpaB contributes to dissociation of chaperone-effector complex in Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0246033. [PMID: 33507993 PMCID: PMC7842900 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Many animal and plant pathogenic bacteria employ a type three secretion system (T3SS) to deliver type three effector proteins (T3Es) into host cells. Efficient secretion of many T3Es in the plant pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc) relies on the global chaperone HpaB. However, how the domain of HpaB itself affects effector translocation/secretion is poorly understood. Here, we used genetic and biochemical approaches to identify a novel domain at the C-terminal end of HpaB (amino acid residues 137-160) that contributes to virulence and hypersensitive response (HR). Both in vitro secretion assay and in planta translocation assay showed that the secretion and translocation of T3E proteins depend on the C-terminal region of HpaB. Deletion of the C-terminal region of HpaB did not affect binding to T3Es, self-association or interaction with T3SS components. However, the deletion of C-terminal region sharply reduced the mounts of free T3Es liberated from the complex of HpaB with the T3Es, a reaction catalyzed in an ATP-dependent manner by the T3SS-associated ATPase HrcN. Our findings demonstrate the C-terminal domain of HpaB contributes to disassembly of chaperone-effector complex and reveal a potential molecular mechanism underpinning the involvement of HpaB in secretion of T3Es in Xcc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Liang Gan
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Li-Yan Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Li-Chao Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Wan-Lian Li
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Xue-Lian Liang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Wei Jiang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | | | - Xiao-Hong Hang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Mei Yang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Ji-Liang Tang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Bo-Le Jiang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-bioresources, College of Life Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
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8
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Milne-Davies B, Wimmi S, Diepold A. Adaptivity and dynamics in type III secretion systems. Mol Microbiol 2020; 115:395-411. [PMID: 33251695 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The type III secretion system is the common core of two bacterial molecular machines: the flagellum and the injectisome. The flagellum is the most widely distributed prokaryotic locomotion device, whereas the injectisome is a syringe-like apparatus for inter-kingdom protein translocation, which is essential for virulence in important human pathogens. The successful concept of the type III secretion system has been modified for different bacterial needs. It can be adapted to changing conditions, and was found to be a dynamic complex constantly exchanging components. In this review, we highlight the flexibility, adaptivity, and dynamic nature of the type III secretion system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bailey Milne-Davies
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max-Planck-Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Stephan Wimmi
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max-Planck-Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Diepold
- Department of Ecophysiology, Max-Planck-Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg, Germany
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9
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Bajunaid W, Haidar-Ahmad N, Kottarampatel AH, Ourida Manigat F, Silué N, F. Tchagang C, Tomaro K, Campbell-Valois FX. The T3SS of Shigella: Expression, Structure, Function, and Role in Vacuole Escape. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8121933. [PMID: 33291504 PMCID: PMC7762205 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8121933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Shigella spp. are one of the leading causes of infectious diarrheal diseases. They are Escherichia coli pathovars that are characterized by the harboring of a large plasmid that encodes most virulence genes, including a type III secretion system (T3SS). The archetypal element of the T3SS is the injectisome, a syringe-like nanomachine composed of approximately 20 proteins, spanning both bacterial membranes and the cell wall, and topped with a needle. Upon contact of the tip of the needle with the plasma membrane, the injectisome secretes its protein substrates into host cells. Some of these substrates act as translocators or effectors whose functions are key to the invasion of the cytosol and the cell-to-cell spread characterizing the lifestyle of Shigella spp. Here, we review the structure, assembly, function, and methods to measure the activity of the injectisome with a focus on Shigella, but complemented with data from other T3SS if required. We also present the regulatory cascade that controls the expression of T3SS genes in Shigella. Finally, we describe the function of translocators and effectors during cell-to-cell spread, particularly during escape from the vacuole, a key element of Shigella’s pathogenesis that has yet to reveal all of its secrets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waad Bajunaid
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (W.B.); (N.H.-A.); (A.H.K.); (F.O.M.); (N.S.); (C.F.T.); (K.T.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Nathaline Haidar-Ahmad
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (W.B.); (N.H.-A.); (A.H.K.); (F.O.M.); (N.S.); (C.F.T.); (K.T.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Anwer Hasil Kottarampatel
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (W.B.); (N.H.-A.); (A.H.K.); (F.O.M.); (N.S.); (C.F.T.); (K.T.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - France Ourida Manigat
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (W.B.); (N.H.-A.); (A.H.K.); (F.O.M.); (N.S.); (C.F.T.); (K.T.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Navoun Silué
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (W.B.); (N.H.-A.); (A.H.K.); (F.O.M.); (N.S.); (C.F.T.); (K.T.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Caetanie F. Tchagang
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (W.B.); (N.H.-A.); (A.H.K.); (F.O.M.); (N.S.); (C.F.T.); (K.T.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Kyle Tomaro
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (W.B.); (N.H.-A.); (A.H.K.); (F.O.M.); (N.S.); (C.F.T.); (K.T.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - François-Xavier Campbell-Valois
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; (W.B.); (N.H.-A.); (A.H.K.); (F.O.M.); (N.S.); (C.F.T.); (K.T.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada
- Correspondence:
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10
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Case HB, Mattock DS, Miller BR, Dickenson NE. Novel Noncompetitive Type Three Secretion System ATPase Inhibitors Shut Down Shigella Effector Secretion. Biochemistry 2020; 59:2667-2678. [PMID: 32567308 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.0c00431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Shigella is the causative agent of bacillary dysentery and is responsible for an estimated 165 million infections and 600,000 deaths annually. Like many Gram-negative pathogens, Shigella relies on a type three secretion system (T3SS) to initiate and sustain infection by directly injecting effector proteins into host cells. Protein secretion through the needle-like injectisome and overall Shigella virulence rely on the T3SS ATPase Spa47, making it a likely means for T3SS regulation and an attractive target for therapeutic small molecule inhibitors. Here, we utilize a recently solved 2.15 Å crystal structure of Spa47 to computationally screen 7.6 million drug-like compounds for candidates which avoid the highly conserved active site by targeting a distal, but critical, interface between adjacent protomers of the Spa47 homohexamer. Ten of the top inhibitor candidates were characterized, identifying novel Spa47 inhibitors that reduce in vitro ATPase activity by as much as 87.9 ± 10.5% with IC50's as low as 25 ± 20 μM and reduce in vivo Shigella T3SS protein secretion by as much as 94.7 ± 3.0%. Kinetic analyses show that the inhibitors operate through a noncompetitive mechanism that likely supports the inhibitors' low cytotoxicity, as they avoid off-target ATPases involved in either Shigella or mammalian cell metabolism. Interestingly, the inhibitors display nearly identical inhibition profiles for Spa47 and the T3SS ATPases EscN from E. coli and FliI from Salmonella. Together, the results of this study provide much-needed insight into T3SS ATPase inhibition mechanisms and a strong platform for developing broadly effective cross-pathogen T3SS ATPase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather B Case
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
| | - Dominic S Mattock
- Department of Chemistry, Truman State University, Kirksville, Missouri 63501, United States
| | - Bill R Miller
- Department of Chemistry, Truman State University, Kirksville, Missouri 63501, United States
| | - Nicholas E Dickenson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322, United States
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