Plasma biomarkers of the amyloid pathway are associated with geographic atrophy secondary to age-related macular degeneration

Disturbed Matrix Metalloproteinases Activity in Age-Related Macular Degeneration

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a tightly regulated family of proteolytic enzymes that break down extracellular matrix (ECM) and basement membrane components. Because it is associated with development, morphogenesis, tissue remodeling, and repair, ECM remodeling is an important mechanism. MMPs are thought to act as a double-edged sword, as they contribute to maintaining photoreceptors/retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)/Bruch's membrane (BM)/choroid complex homeostasis and also contribute to the onset and progression of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Polymorphisms and/or altered expression in MMPs and their tissue inhibitors (TIMPs) are associated with age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Here, we review the evidence for MMPs' role in the onset and progression of AMD via addressing their regulation and TIMPs' significant regulatory functions.

An Exploratory Study Provides Insights into MMP9 and Aβ Levels in the Vitreous and Blood across Different Ages and in a Subset of AMD Patients

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) and total amyloid-beta (Aβ) are prospective biomarkers of ocular ageing and retinopathy. These were quantified by ELISA in the vitreous and blood from controls (n = 55) and in a subset of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) patients (n = 12) for insights and possible additional links between the ocular and systemic compartments. Vitreous MMP9 levels in control and AMD groups were 932.5 ± 240.9 pg/mL and 813.7 ± 157.6 pg/mL, whilst serum levels were 2228 ± 193 pg/mL and 2386.8 ± 449.4 pg/mL, respectively. Vitreous Aβ in control and AMD groups were 1173.5 ± 117.1 pg/mL and 1275.6 ± 332.9 pg/mL, whilst plasma Aβ were 574.3 ± 104.8 pg/mL and 542.2 ± 139.9 pg/mL, respectively. MMP9 and Aβ showed variable levels across the lifecourse, indicating no correlation to each other or with age nor AMD status, though the smaller AMD cohort was a limiting factor. Aβ and MMP9 levels in the vitreous and blood were unrelated to mean arterial pressure. Smoking, another modifiable risk, showed no association with vitreous Aβ. However, smoking may be linked with vitreous (p = 0.004) and serum (p = 0.005) MMP9 levels in control and AMD groups, though this did not reach our elevated (p = 0.001) significance. A bioinformatics analysis revealed promising MMP9 and APP/Aβ partners for further scrutiny, many of which are already linked with retinopathy.

Aβ1-40 Oligomers Trigger Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Formation through TLR4- and NADPH Oxidase-Dependent Pathways in Age-Related Macular Degeneration

Neutrophils participate in the advancement of the human innate immune system and respond to perceived endogenous and exogenous threats. As a response mechanism, neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) form near pathogens and surrounding tissues during an immune response. Drusen is an important marker of Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD) and plays an important role in the course of AMD. Aβ1-40 is the main component of drusen. However, the relationship between NETs and AMD or Aβ1-40 is unclear. Here, we found elevated levels of NETs in the serum of AMD patients and elevated levels in the serum of mouse models. We also observed the accumulation of neutrophils in the mouse retina. In addition, the production of NETs was inhibited by PAD4 inhibitors, which can alleviate chronic inflammation. Moreover, we confirmed that Aβ1-40 can induce NETs formation via the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and neutrophil NADPH oxidase (NOX) pathways. Our study confirmed that the formation of NETs is induced by Aβ1–40, and the results suggest that NETs may play a vital role in AMD pathogenesis.

Systemic Complement Activation Profiles in Nonexudative Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Systematic Review

Topic

To evaluate whether differences exist in systemic complement activation profiles in patients with early to intermediate nonexudative age-related macular degeneration (AMD) or geographic atrophy (GA) compared with control participants without AMD.

Clinical Relevance

Complement inhibition has emerged as a therapeutic strategy for GA, although clinical trials to date have yielded mixed results. Despite these efforts, no clear consensus exists regarding what portions of the complement pathway are dysregulated in AMD or when this dysregulation occurs relative to AMD stage. Although past studies have compared systemic complement activation profiles in patients with AMD versus in control participants without AMD, differences in AMD case definition and differing analytical approaches complicate their interpretation.

Methods

We performed a systematic review by identifying articles from database inception through October 11, 2020, that reported systemic complement activation profiles in patients with early or intermediate nonexudative AMD or GA versus control participants without AMD by searching PubMed, Google Scholar, and Embase. Risk of bias was assessed using a modified Newcastle-Ottawa score.

Results

The 8 reviewed studies included 2131 independent participants. Most studies report significantly higher systemic levels of products associated with complement activation and significantly lower systemic levels of products associated with complement inhibition in patients with early and advanced nonexudative AMD compared with control participants without AMD.

Discussion

Evidence suggests that systemic complement overactivation is a feature of early or intermediate and advanced nonexudative AMD. However, given significant heterogeneity, these findings are not conclusive and warrant further investigation.

Systemic Complement Activation Profiles in Nonexudative Age-Related Macular Degeneration: A Meta-Analysis

Although complement inhibition has emerged as a possible therapeutic strategy for age-related macular degeneration (AMD), there is not a clear consensus regarding what aspects of the complement pathway are dysregulated in AMD and when this occurs relative to disease stage. We recently published a systematic review describing systemic complement activation profiles in patients with early/intermediate AMD or geographic atrophy (GA) compared to non-AMD controls. Here, we sought to meta-analyze these results to estimate the magnitude of complement dysregulation in AMD using restricted maximum likelihood estimation. The seven meta-analyzed studies included 710 independent participants with 23 effect sizes. Compared with non-AMD controls, patients with early/intermediate nonexudative AMD (N = 246) had significantly higher systemic complement activation, as quantified by the levels of complement proteins generated by common final pathway activation, and significantly lower systemic complement inhibition. In contrast, there were no statistically significant differences in the systemic levels of complement common final pathway activation products or complement inhibition in patients with GA (N = 178) versus non-AMD controls. We provide evidence that systemic complement over-activation is a feature of early/intermediate nonexudative AMD; no such evidence was identified for patients with GA. These findings provide mechanistic insights and inform future clinical trials.

Biomarkers for Nonexudative Age-Related Macular Degeneration and Relevance for Clinical Trials: A Systematic Review

TOPIC

The purpose of the review was to identify structural, functional, blood-based, and other types of biomarkers for early, intermediate, and late nonexudative stages of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and summarize the relevant data for proof-of-concept clinical trials.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

AMD is a leading cause of blindness in the aging population, yet no treatments exist for its most common nonexudative form. There are limited data on the diagnosis and progression of nonexudative AMD compared to neovascular AMD. Our objective was to provide a comprehensive, systematic review of recently published biomarkers (molecular, structural, and functional) for early AMD, intermediate AMD, and geographic atrophy and to evaluate the relevance of these biomarkers for use in future clinical trials.

METHODS

A literature search of PubMed, ScienceDirect, EMBASE, and Web of Science from January 1, 1996 to November 30, 2020 and a patent search were conducted. Search terms included "early AMD," "dry AMD," "intermediate AMD," "biomarkers for nonexudative AMD," "fundus autofluorescence patterns," "color fundus photography," "dark adaptation," and "microperimetry." Articles were assessed for bias and quality with the Mixed-Methods Appraisal Tool. A total of 94 articles were included (61,842 individuals).

RESULTS

Spectral-domain optical coherence tomography was superior at highlighting detailed structural changes in earlier stages of AMD. Fundus autofluorescence patterns were found to be most important in estimating progression of geographic atrophy. Delayed rod intercept time on dark adaptation was the most widely recommended surrogate functional endpoint for early AMD, while retinal sensitivity on microperimetry was most relevant for intermediate AMD. Combinational studies accounting for various patient characteristics and machine/deep-learning approaches were best suited for assessing individualized risk of AMD onset and progression.

CONCLUSION

This systematic review supports the use of structural and functional biomarkers in early AMD and intermediate AMD, which are more reproducible and less invasive than the other classes of biomarkers described. The use of deep learning and combinational algorithms will gain increasing importance in future clinical trials of nonexudative AMD.

Sodium Iodate-Induced Degeneration Results in Local Complement Changes and Inflammatory Processes in Murine Retina

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), one of the leading causes of blindness worldwide, causes personal suffering and high socioeconomic costs. While there has been progress in the treatments for the neovascular form of AMD, no therapy is yet available for the more common dry form, also known as geographic atrophy. We analysed the retinal tissue in a mouse model of retinal degeneration caused by sodium iodate (NaIO₃)-induced retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) atrophy to understand the underlying pathology. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), qRT-PCR, Western blot, immunohistochemistry of the retinas and multiplex ELISA of the mouse serum were applied to find the pathways involved in the degeneration. NaIO₃ caused patchy RPE loss and thinning of the photoreceptor layer. This was accompanied by the increased retinal expression of complement components c1s, c3, c4, cfb and cfh. C1s, C3, CFH and CFB were complement proteins, with enhanced deposition at day 3. C4 was upregulated in retinal degeneration at day 10. Consistently, the transcript levels of proinflammatory ccl-2, -3, -5, il-1β, il-33 and tgf-β were increased in the retinas of NaIO₃ mice, but vegf-a mRNA was reduced. Macrophages, microglia and gliotic Müller cells could be a cellular source for local retinal inflammatory changes in the NaIO₃ retina. Systemic complement and cytokines/chemokines remained unaltered in this model of NaIO₃-dependent retinal degeneration. In conclusion, systemically administered NaIO₃ promotes degenerative and inflammatory processes in the retina, which can mimic the hallmarks of geographic atrophy.

Geographic atrophy: where we are now and where we are going

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) affects a significant percentage of the elderly population and end-stage disease classified by either geographic atrophy (GA) or neovascular AMD (nvAMD) is one of the leading causes of vision loss worldwide. Despite the fact that there are currently treatments for nvAMD, there are no treatments in practice to prevent disease onset or progression of GA. This topic is at the forefront of ophthalmic research demonstrated by the recent advances in disease characterization, genetic and environmental risk factor classification, biomarker discovery and mechanism of pathogenesis categorization. There are also numerous clinical treatment trials underway, targeting proposed pathways and biomarkers associated with GA that are promising.

RECENT FINDINGS

With several clinical trials of potential treatments underway and numerous recent publications on disease diagnosis and classification, the understanding of GA pathogenesis has increased substantially. Although the exact mechanism of pathology is still elusive, recent literature has highlighted the utilization of current and new ophthalmic imaging modalities and discovery of objective and functional markers that can lead to earlier diagnosis and treatment.

SUMMARY

Herein, we will provide an overview and discussion of the current status of GA including advances in mechanism of pathogenesis, diagnosis, classification and current treatment modalities.

Role of Retinal Amyloid-β in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Overlapping Mechanisms and Emerging Clinical Applications

Amyloid-β (Aβ) accumulations have been identified in the retina for neurodegeneration-associated disorders like Alzheimer's disease (AD), glaucoma, and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Elevated retinal Aβ levels were associated with progressive retinal neurodegeneration, elevated cerebral Aβ accumulation, and increased disease severity with a decline in cognition and vision. Retinal Aβ accumulation and its pathological effects were demonstrated to occur prior to irreversible neurodegeneration, which highlights its potential in early disease detection and intervention. Using the retina as a model of the brain, recent studies have focused on characterizing retinal Aβ to determine its applicability for population-based screening of AD, which warrants a further understanding of how Aβ manifests between these disorders. While current treatments directly targeting Aβ accumulations have had limited results, continued exploration of Aβ-associated pathological pathways may yield new therapeutic targets for preserving cognition and vision. Here, we provide a review on the role of retinal Aβ manifestations in these distinct neurodegeneration-associated disorders. We also discuss the recent applications of retinal Aβ for AD screening and current clinical trial outcomes for Aβ-associated treatment approaches. Lastly, we explore potential future therapeutic targets based on overlapping mechanisms of pathophysiology in AD, glaucoma, and AMD.