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Katzner TE, Pain DJ, McTee M, Brown L, Cuadros S, Pokras M, Slabe VA, Watson RT, Wiemeyer G, Bedrosian B, Hampton JO, Parish CN, Pay JM, Saito K, Schulz JH. Lead poisoning of raptors: state of the science and cross-discipline mitigation options for a global problem. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024. [PMID: 38693847 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Lead poisoning is an important global conservation problem for many species of wildlife, especially raptors. Despite the increasing number of individual studies and regional reviews of lead poisoning of raptors, it has been over a decade since this information has been compiled into a comprehensive global review. Here, we summarize the state of knowledge of lead poisoning of raptors, we review developments in manufacturing of non-lead ammunition, the use of which can reduce the most pervasive source of lead these birds encounter, and we compile data on voluntary and regulatory mitigation options and their associated sociological context. We support our literature review with case studies of mitigation actions, largely provided by the conservation practitioners who study or manage these efforts. Our review illustrates the growing awareness and understanding of lead exposure of raptors, and it shows that the science underpinning this understanding has expanded considerably in recent years. We also show that the political and social appetite for managing lead ammunition appears to vary substantially across administrative regions, countries, and continents. Improved understanding of the drivers of this variation could support more effective mitigation of lead exposure of wildlife. This review also shows that mitigation strategies are likely to be most effective when they are outcome driven, consider behavioural theory, local cultures, and environmental conditions, effectively monitor participation, compliance, and levels of raptor exposure, and support both environmental and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd E Katzner
- U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, 230 North Collins Road, Boise, ID, 83702, USA
| | - Deborah J Pain
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, Norfolk, NR4 7TJ, UK
- Zoology Department, University of Cambridge, Downing St, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Michael McTee
- MPG Ranch, 19400 Lower Woodchuck Road, Florence, MT, 59833, USA
| | - Leland Brown
- Oregon Zoo, North American Non-lead Partnership, 4001 SW Canyon Rd, Portland, OR, 97221, USA
| | - Sandra Cuadros
- Hawk Mountain Sanctuary, 410 Summer Valley Rd, Orwigsburg, PA, 17961, USA
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia, 1177 Research Road, Kelowna, British Columbia, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Mark Pokras
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Rd, North Grafton, MA, 01536, USA
| | - Vincent A Slabe
- Conservation Science Global, Bozeman, MT, USA
- The Peregrine Fund, 5668 West Flying Hawk Lane, Boise, ID, 83709, USA
| | - Richard T Watson
- The Peregrine Fund, 5668 West Flying Hawk Lane, Boise, ID, 83709, USA
| | - Guillermo Wiemeyer
- CONICET- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de La Pampa, Calle 5 esq. 116 MO L6360, Gral. Pico, La Pampa, Argentina
| | | | - Jordan O Hampton
- Faculty of Science, University of Melbourne, Grattan Street, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, 6150, Australia
| | | | - James M Pay
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Churchill Ave, Hobart, Tasmania, 7005, Australia
| | - Keisuke Saito
- Institute for Raptor Biomedicine Japan 2-2101 Hokuto, Kushiro, Hokkaido, 084-0922, Japan
| | - John H Schulz
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, 1111 Rollins St, Columbia, MO, 65203, USA
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McTee M, Parish CN, Jourdonnais C, Ramsey P. Weight retention and expansion of popular lead-based and lead-free hunting bullets. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 904:166288. [PMID: 37586537 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Hunting bullets are often comprised of a lead core covered with a copper alloy jacket. When the bullet collides with an animal, particles-sometimes millions-can shed from the projectile and embed in animal tissues. Those lead fragments can persist in game meat and remain in the discarded viscera that many wildlife species scavenge. Bullets often differ in design, so it is vital to assess their weight retention and expansion, which affects how much metal they deposit in tissue and how effectively they kill animals. We fired 12 types of hunting bullets into water to measure their weight retention and expansion at 91 m and 238 m (100 and 260 yards). Bullet constructions included copper, tin, bonded lead, partitioned lead, and cup-and-core lead. On average, copper bullets retained >98 % of their weight, whereas cup-and-core lead bullets retained <13-55 %, depending on the brand and shot distance. One brand of bonded lead bullet retained mass (≥96 %) nearly as well as copper bullets, while another brand retained much less (~71 %). Two types of copper bullets expanded similarly between test distances, while a third expanded less at 238 m. Cup-and-core lead bullets often experienced a separation between their copper alloy jacket and lead core. Our data emphasize that lead-based bullets of similar construction can drastically differ in weight retention and expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael McTee
- MPG Ranch, 19400 Lower Woodchuck Road, Florence, MT 59833, USA.
| | - Chris N Parish
- The Peregrine Fund, 5668 West Flying Hawk Lane, Boise, ID 83709, USA
| | | | - Philip Ramsey
- MPG Ranch, 19400 Lower Woodchuck Road, Florence, MT 59833, USA
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Hutchinson DJ, Jones EM, Pay JM, Clarke JR, Lohr MT, Hampton JO. Further investigation of lead exposure as a potential threatening process for a scavenging marsupial species. Aust Vet J 2023; 101:313-319. [PMID: 37311719 DOI: 10.1111/avj.13252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
There is a growing recognition of the harmful effects of lead exposure on avian and mammalian scavengers. This can lead to both lethal and non-lethal effects which may negatively impact wildlife populations. Our objective was to assess medium-term lead exposure in wild Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii). Frozen liver samples (n = 41), opportunistically collected in 2017-2022, were analysed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) to determine liver lead concentrations. These results were then used to calculate the proportion of animals with elevated lead levels (>5 mg/kg dry weight) and examine the role of explanatory variables that may have influenced the results. The majority of samples analysed were from the south-east corner of Tasmania, within 50 km of Hobart. No Tasmanian devil samples were found to have elevated lead levels. The median liver lead concentration was 0.17 mg/kg (range 0.05-1.32 mg/kg). Female devils were found to have significantly higher liver lead concentrations than males (P = 0.013), which was likely related to lactation, but other variables (age, location, body mass) were not significant. These results suggest that wild Tasmanian devil populations currently show minimal medium-term evidence of exposure to lead pollution, although samples were concentrated in peri-urban areas. The results provide a baseline level which can be used to assess the impact of any future changes in lead use in Tasmania. Furthermore, these data can be used as a comparison for lead exposure studies in other mammalian scavengers, including other carnivorous marsupial species.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Hutchinson
- Faculty of Science, University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria, Australia
| | - E M Jones
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Sandy Bay, Tasmania, Australia
| | - J M Pay
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Sandy Bay, Tasmania, Australia
| | - J R Clarke
- Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery (TMAG), Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - M T Lohr
- School of Science, Faculty of Health, Engineering and Science, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia
- SLR Consulting, Subiaco, Western Australia, Australia
| | - J O Hampton
- Faculty of Science, University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria, Australia
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, Australia
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Thomas VG, Kanstrup N. Promoting enforcement of non-lead hunting ammunition regulations and compliance in Europe and North America. AMBIO 2023; 52:1350-1358. [PMID: 37079207 PMCID: PMC10272061 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-023-01863-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The direct regulation of lead ammunition in North America and Europe has been mainly for hunting in wetlands. Little support among hunters and the ammunition makers exists for further regulation despite suitable lead substitutes and much education about the known risks to wildlife and human health from ingested lead. In the absence of personnel to detect use of lead ammunition and enforce regulations, hunter compliance is low. Identification of non-lead ammunition using existing electronic technology and an international protocol on the identification of non-lead rifle bullets is proposed to aid enforcement. An explicit definition of the chemical composition of lead substitutes is required in European Union legislation together with a more enforceable distinction between 'possession during hunting' and 'ownership' of lead ammunition. A more transdisciplinary regulatory approach to transitioning to non-lead ammunition is advised. It comprises widespread public health advisories, setting a maximum allowable lead level in commercial game meats in EU legislation, and public communication that emphasizes the benefits of non-lead ammunition use to all categories of wildlife and the public perception of hunting, whether in North America or Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vernon G. Thomas
- Department of Integrative Biology, College of Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1 Canada
| | - Niels Kanstrup
- Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, C.F. Møllers Allé 8, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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Cox TE, Paine D, O'Dwyer-Hall E, Matthews R, Blumson T, Florance B, Fielder K, Tarran M, Korcz M, Wiebkin A, Hamnett PW, Bradshaw CJA, Page B. Thermal aerial culling for the control of vertebrate pest populations. Sci Rep 2023; 13:10063. [PMID: 37344616 PMCID: PMC10284814 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-37210-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Helicopter-based shooting is an effective management tool for large vertebrate pest animals. However, animals in low-density populations and/or dense habitat can be difficult to locate visually. Thermal-imaging technology can increase detections in these conditions. We used thermal-imaging equipment with a specific helicopter crew configuration to assist in aerial culling for feral pigs (Sus scrofa) and fallow deer (Dama dama) in South Australia in 2021. Seventy-two percent of pigs and 53% of deer were first detected in dense canopy/tall forest habitat. Median time from the first impact shot to incapacitation was < 12 s. The culling rate (animals hour-1) doubled compared to visual shoots over the same populations and the wounding rate was zero resulting in a incapacitation efficiency of 100%. The crew configuration gave the shooter a wide field of view and the thermal operator behind the shooter provided essential support to find new and escaping animals, and to confirm species identification and successful removal. The crew configuration allowed for successful target acquisition and tracking, with reduced target escape. The approach can increase the efficiency of aerial culling, has the potential to increase the success of programs where eradication is a viable option, and can improve animal welfare outcomes by reducing wounding rates and the escape of target animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarnya E Cox
- Vertebrate Pest Research Unit, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, 1447 Forest Road, Orange, NSW, 2880, Australia.
- School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, 2350, Australia.
| | - David Paine
- Aerial Thermal Hunting Services, Murphy Road RD 2, Whakatane, 3192, New Zealand
| | - Emma O'Dwyer-Hall
- Vertebrate Pest Research Unit, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, 1447 Forest Road, Orange, NSW, 2880, Australia
| | - Robert Matthews
- Heli Surveys, Jindabyne Airport, 56 Tinworth Drive, Jindabyne, NSW, 2627, Australia
| | - Tony Blumson
- Heli Surveys, Jindabyne Airport, 56 Tinworth Drive, Jindabyne, NSW, 2627, Australia
| | - Brenton Florance
- The Kangaroo Island Landscape Board, 35 Dauncey Street, Kingscote, SA, 5223, Australia
| | - Kate Fielder
- Invasive Species Unit, Biosecurity, The Department of Primary Industries and Regions (PIRSA), CSIRO Building 1, Entry 4 Waite Road, Urrbrae, SA, 5064, Australia
| | - Myall Tarran
- Invasive Species Unit, Biosecurity, The Department of Primary Industries and Regions (PIRSA), CSIRO Building 1, Entry 4 Waite Road, Urrbrae, SA, 5064, Australia
| | - Matt Korcz
- Invasive Species Unit, Biosecurity, The Department of Primary Industries and Regions (PIRSA), CSIRO Building 1, Entry 4 Waite Road, Urrbrae, SA, 5064, Australia
| | - Annelise Wiebkin
- Invasive Species Unit, Biosecurity, The Department of Primary Industries and Regions (PIRSA), CSIRO Building 1, Entry 4 Waite Road, Urrbrae, SA, 5064, Australia
| | - Peter W Hamnett
- Global Ecology | Partuyarta Ngadluku Wardli Kuu, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia
| | - Corey J A Bradshaw
- Global Ecology | Partuyarta Ngadluku Wardli Kuu, College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia
| | - Brad Page
- Invasive Species Unit, Biosecurity, The Department of Primary Industries and Regions (PIRSA), CSIRO Building 1, Entry 4 Waite Road, Urrbrae, SA, 5064, Australia
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Brown L, Rosabal M, Dussault C, Arnemo JM, Fuchs B, Zedrosser A, Pelletier F. Lead exposure in American black bears increases with age and big game harvest density. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 315:120427. [PMID: 36243189 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Hunting has multiple consequences for wildlife, and it can be an important source of environmental pollution. Most big game hunters use lead (Pb) ammunition that shed metal fragments in the tissues of harvested animals. These Pb fragments become available to scavengers when hunters discard contaminated slaughter remains in the environment. This exposure route has been extensively studied in avian scavengers, but few studies have investigated Pb exposure from ammunition in mammals. Mammalian scavengers, including American black bears (Ursus americanus), frequently use slaughter remains discarded by hunters. The objective of this study was to investigate whether big game harvest density influenced long-term Pb exposure in American black bears from Quebec, Canada. Our results showed that female black bears had higher tooth Pb concentrations in areas with higher big game harvest densities, but such relationship was not evident in males. We also showed that older bears had higher tooth Pb concentrations compared to younger ones. Overall, our study showed that Pb exposure increases with age in black bears and that some of that Pb likely comes from bullet fragments embedded in slaughter remains discarded by hunters. These results suggest that hunters may drive mammalian scavengers into an evolutionary trap, whereby the long-term benefits of consuming slaughter remains could be negated due to increased Pb exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludovick Brown
- Département de Biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 boulevard de l'Université, Sherbrooke, QC, J1K 2R1, Canada.
| | - Maikel Rosabal
- Groupe de Recherche Interuniversitaire en Limnologie (GRIL), Département des Sciences biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, P.O. Box 8888, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, QC, H3C 3P8, Canada
| | - Christian Dussault
- Direction de l'expertise sur la Faune Terrestre, l'herpétofaune et l'avifaune, Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs, 880 Chemin Sainte-Foy, Québec, QC, G1S 4X4, Canada
| | - Jon M Arnemo
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Campus Evenstad, 2418, Elverum, Norway; Department of Wildlife, Fish and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Boris Fuchs
- Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Campus Evenstad, 2418, Elverum, Norway
| | - Andreas Zedrosser
- Department of Natural Sciences and Environmental Health, University of South-Eastern Norway, 3800, Bø, Telemark, Norway; Institute for Wildlife Biology and Game Management, University for Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1180, Vienna, Austria
| | - Fanie Pelletier
- Département de Biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 boulevard de l'Université, Sherbrooke, QC, J1K 2R1, Canada
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Physical Hazards in Aepyceros melampus Carcasses Killed for Meat Purposes by Aerial and Thoracic Shots. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12146861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Physical hazards, such as bullet particles and bone fragments, in wild meat could be introduced by processes applied whilst killing game meat animals. These hazards may pose a health risk to non-suspecting consumers and must therefore be identified, evaluated and removed from meat and meat products. The extent of dispersion of these hazards in carcasses has not been sufficiently investigated with respect to game meat safety. This study aims to describe and quantify the occurrence of these hazards in animals shot by aerial (helicopter) shotgun targeting the head and higher neck region (n = 12) and single-projectile/free-bullet rifle shots targeting the thorax region (n = 36) of impala killed for meat consumption. To quantify the occurrence, particle sizes and dispersion surface of bullet fragments and bone splinters in the forequarters, radiographs were taken from top to bottom (dorsal ventral) and from the side (lateral) in the sequence of the skull, neck and forequarters. A t-test (p < 0.05) was conducted to compare the association of averages from the killing methods with the occurrences of bullet fragments and bone splinters. Bullet particles and bone splinters of significant sizes were introduced by the killing methods adopted. The results show a high incidence of harmful bullet particle and bone splinter sizes from the rifle thorax shots (p = 0.005). The dispersion of both physical hazards could cover a wide distance of >332 mm between particles on hunted game meat animals. Game meat animal killing methods with a rifle targeting the chest cavity should be refined and implemented. These should include the selection of bullets less prone to fragmentation, and compliance with regulated game meat animal-killing protocols, including regulating the placement of shots to allow only head or high neck shots for game meat animals slaughtered/culled for human consumption.
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Hampton JO, Dunstan H, Toop SD, Flesch JS, Andreotti A, Pain DJ. Lead ammunition residues in a hunted Australian grassland bird, the stubble quail (Coturnix pectoralis): Implications for human and wildlife health. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0267401. [PMID: 35446880 PMCID: PMC9022800 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0267401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Scavenging and predatory wildlife can ingest lead (Pb) from lead-based ammunition and become poisoned when feeding on shot game animals. Humans can similarly be exposed to ammunition-derived lead when consuming wild-shot game animals. Studies have assessed the degree of lead contamination in the carcasses of game animals but this scrutiny has not so far extended to Australia. Stubble quail (Coturnix pectoralis) are one of the only native non-waterfowl bird species that can be legally hunted in Australia, where it is commonly hunted with lead shot. The aim of this study was to characterize lead contamination in quail harvested with lead-based ammunition. The frequency, dimensions, and number of lead fragments embedded in carcasses were assessed through use of radiography (X-ray). From these data, the average quantity of lead available to scavenging wildlife was estimated along with potential risks to human consumers. We radiographed 37 stubble quail harvested by hunters using 12-gauge (2.75”) shotguns to fire shells containing 28 g (1 oz) of #9 (2 mm or 0.08” diameter) lead shot in western Victoria, Australia, in Autumn 2021. Radiographs revealed that 81% of carcasses contained embedded pellets and/or fragments with an average of 1.62 embedded pellets detected per bird. By excising and weighing a sample of 30 shotgun pellets (all had a mass of 0.75 grain or 48.6 mg), we calculated an average lead load of 78 mg/100 g of body mass. This was a conservative estimate, because fragments were not considered. This level of lead contamination was comparable to hunted bird species examined using similar methods in Europe. The quantity and characteristics of lead ammunition residues found suggest that predatory and scavenging wildlife and some groups of human consumers will be at risk of negative health impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan O. Hampton
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Heath Dunstan
- Game Management Authority, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Simon D. Toop
- Game Management Authority, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Alessandro Andreotti
- Area Avifauna Migratrice, Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale, Ozzano Emilia, Italy
| | - Deborah J. Pain
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Hampton JO, Specht AJ, Pay JM, Pokras MA, Bengsen AJ. Portable X-ray fluorescence for bone lead measurements of Australian eagles. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 789:147998. [PMID: 34051503 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) toxicity from ammunition has been shown to be a threat to scavenging birds across the globe. Toxic levels of lead have recently been found in Australia's largest bird of prey, the wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax), through inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis of liver and bone samples. However, ICP-MS is consumptive (causing damage to archived specimens), time-consuming, and expensive. For these reasons, portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) devices have been optimized to measure bone lead in North American avian species, humans, and other environmental samples. In this study, we assessed portable XRF for bone lead measurement in Australian raptors in two parts. First, we validated the method using tissues from wedge-tailed eagles from Tasmania (A. a. fleayi), analysing bone samples taken from sites on the femur immediately adjacent to sites for which we had ICP-MS data (n = 89). Second, we measured lead via portable XRF in the skulls of wedge-tailed eagles from south-eastern mainland Australia (A. a. audax) collected during a criminal prosecution (n = 92). Portable XRF bone lead measurement demonstrated an excellent correlation with ICP-MS results using root-transformed regression (R2 = 0.88). Calculated equivalent ICP-MS values revealed that greater than 50% of the eagles from mainland Australia had elevated lead levels (>10 mg/kg) and 13% had severe lead exposure (>20 mg/kg). Our results support previous studies of North American avian species and suggest that portable XRF could be a useful and inexpensive option for measurement of bone lead in Australian scavenger species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan O Hampton
- Game Management Authority, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia; School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia 6150, Australia.
| | - Aaron J Specht
- Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
| | - James M Pay
- University of Tasmania, Churchill Ave, Hobart, Tasmania 7005, Australia
| | - Mark A Pokras
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, N. Grafton, MA, United States
| | - Andrew J Bengsen
- Vertebrate Pest Research Unit, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Orange, NSW 2800, Australia
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Hampton JO, Arnemo JM, Barnsley R, Cattet M, Daoust PY, DeNicola AJ, Eccles G, Fletcher D, Hinds LA, Hunt R, Portas T, Stokke S, Warburton B, Wimpenny C. Animal welfare testing for shooting and darting free-ranging wildlife: a review and recommendations. WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1071/wr20107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Several important techniques for managing wildlife rely on ballistics (the behaviour of projectiles), including killing techniques (shooting) as well as capture and marking methods (darting). Because all ballistic techniques have the capacity to harm animals, animal welfare is an important consideration. Standardised testing approaches that have allowed refinement for other physical killing and capture methods (e.g. traps for mammals) have not been applied broadly to ballistic methods. At the same time, new technology is becoming available for shooting (e.g. subsonic and lead-free ammunition) and darting (e.g. dye-marker darts). We present several case studies demonstrating (a) how basic ballistic testing can be performed for novel firearms and/or projectiles, (b) the benefits of identifying methods producing undesirable results before operational use, and (c) the welfare risks associated with bypassing testing of a technique before broad-scale application. Following the approach that has been used internationally to test kill-traps, we suggest the following four-step testing process: (1) range and field testing to confirm accuracy and precision, the delivery of appropriate kinetic energy levels and projectile behaviour, (2) post-mortem assessment of ballistic injury in cadavers, (3) small-scale live animal pilot studies with predetermined threshold pass/fail levels, and (4) broad-scale use with reporting of the frequency of adverse animal welfare outcomes. We present this as a practical approach for maintaining and improving animal welfare standards when considering the use of ballistic technology for wildlife management.
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