Soil microbial communities in the face of changing farming practices: A case study in an agricultural landscape in France

Differential responses of soil microbial biomass, diversity and interactions to land use intensity at a territorial scale

Impact of land use intensification on soil microbial communities across a territory remains poorly documented. Yet, it has to be deciphered to validate the results obtained at local and global scales by integrating the variations of environmental conditions and agricultural systems at a territorial scale. We investigated the impact of different land uses (from forest to agricultural systems) and associated soil management practices on soil molecular microbial biomass and diversity across a territory of 3300 km2 in Burgundy (France). Microbial biomass and diversity were determined by quantifying and high-throughput sequencing of soil DNA from 300 soils, respectively. Geostatistics were applied to map the soil macro-ecological patterns and variance partitioning analysis was used to rank the influence of soil physicochemical characteristics, land uses and associated practices on soil microbial communities. Geographical patterns differed between microbial biomass and diversity, emphasizing that distinct environmental drivers shaped these parameters. Soil microbial biomass was mainly driven by the soil organic carbon content and was significantly altered by agricultural land uses, with a loss of about 71 % from natural to agricultural ecosystems. The best predictors of bacterial and fungal richness were soil texture and pH, respectively. Microbial diversity was less sensitive than microbial biomass to land use intensification, and fungal richness appeared more impacted than bacteria. Co-occurrence network analysis of the interactions among microbial communities showed a decline of about 95 % of network complexity with land use intensification, which counterbalanced the weak response of microbial diversity. Grouping of the 147 cropland plots in four clusters according to their agricultural practices confirmed that microbial parameters exhibited different responses to soil management intensification, especially soil tillage and crop protection. Our results altogether allow evaluating the different levels of microbial parameters' vulnerability to land use intensity at a territorial scale.

Diversity, composition and ecological networks of bacterial communities in response to a full cultivation cycle of the seaweed, Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis

Cultivation of the seaweed, Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis, supports environmental bioremediation and the aquaculture economy in coastal ecosystems, and microorganisms play important roles during the cultivation process. In this study, we aimed to understand the response of bacterial communities through a full cultivation cycle of G. lemaneiformis. We analyzed the bacterial communities using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and defined the environmental factors of 144 water samples from the Nan'ao Island, South China Sea. Community diversity, keystone species and ecological networks of bacterial communities shifted markedly in the cultivation zone largely due to changes in the environmental factors, seaweed biomass and cultivation stages. The bacterial communities at the seaweed zone have lower species richness, more seaweed-associated taxa and simpler but more stable co-occurrence networks compared to the control zone. Persistent microbial groups such as Aquimarina, Formosa, Glaciecola and Marinobacter exhibited a strong association with seaweed during the growth and maturity stages. We describe a conceptual model to summarize the changes in the bacterial community composition, its diversity and the ecological networks in seaweed cultivation zone. Overall, this study provides new perspectives on the dynamic interaction of seaweed cultivation, bacterial communities and environment factors and their potential ecosystem services as observed in the example of the G. lemaneiformis cultivation ecosystem.

Urban land uses shape soil microbial abundance and diversity

Soil microbial biodiversity provides many useful services in cities. However, the ecology of microbial communities in urban soils remains poorly documented, and studies are required to better predict the impact of urban land use. We characterized microbial communities (archea/bacteria and fungi) in urban soils in Dijon (Burgundy, France). Three main land uses were considered - public leisure, traffic, and urban agriculture - sub-categorized in sub-land uses according to urban indexes and management practices. Microbial biomass and diversity were determined by quantifying and high-throughput sequencing of soil DNA. Variation partitioning analysis was used to rank soil physicochemical characteristics and land uses according to their relative contribution to the variation of soil microbial communities. Urban soils in Dijon harbored high levels of microbial biomass and diversity that varied according to land uses. Microbial biomass was 1.8 times higher in public leisure and traffic sites than in urban agriculture sites. Fungal richness increased by 25 % in urban agriculture soils, and bacterial richness was lower (by 20 %) in public leisure soils. Partitioning models explained 25.7 %, 46.2 % and 75.6 % of the variance of fungal richness, bacterial richness and microbial biomass, respectively. The organic carbon content and the C/N ratio were the best predictors of microbial biomass, whereas soil bacterial diversity was mainly explained by soil texture and land use. Neither metal trace elements nor polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contents explained variations of microbial communities, probably due to their very low concentration in the soils. The microbial composition results highlighted that leisure sites represented a stabilized habitat favoring specialized microbial groups and microbial plant symbionts, as opposed to urban agriculture sites that stimulated opportunistic populations able to face the impact of agricultural practices. Altogether, our results provide evidence that there is scope for urban planners to drive soil microbial diversity through sustainable urban land use and associated management practices.

Characterization of the Culturable Sporobiota of Spanish Olive Groves and Its Tolerance toward Environmental Challenges

Olive agriculture presents an integral economic and social pillar of the Mediterranean region with 95% of the world's olive tree population concentrated in this area. A diverse ecosystem consisting of fungi, archaea, viruses, protozoa, and microbial communities-the soil microbiome-plays a central role in maintaining healthy soils while keeping up productivity. Spore-forming organisms (i.e., the sporobiota) have been identified as one of the predominant communities of the soil microbiome and are known for the wide variety of antimicrobial properties and extraordinary resistance. Hence, the aim of this work was to determine the culturable sporobiota of Spanish olive orchards and characterize its phenotypic properties toward common environmental challenges. A collection of 417 heat-resistant bacteria were isolated from five Spanish olive orchards. This collective was termed the "olive sporobiota." Rep-PCR clustering of representative isolates revealed that they all belonged to the group of Bacillus spp., or closely related species, showing a great variety of species and strains. Representative isolates showed susceptibility to common antibiotics, as well as good resistance to heavy metal exposure, with an order of metal tolerance determined as iron > copper > nickel > manganese > zinc > cadmium. Finally, we showed that the application of mineral fertilizer can in several cases enhance bacterial growth and thus potentially increase the relative proportion of the sporobiota in the olive grove ecosystem. In summary, the identification of the culturable olive sporobiota increases our understanding of the microbial diversity in Spanish olive groves, while tolerance and resistance profiles provide important insights into the phenotypic characteristics of the microbial community. IMPORTANCE Microbial communities are a key component of healthy soils. Spore-forming microorganisms represent a large fraction of this community-termed the "sporobiota"-and play a central role in creating a conducive environment for plant growth and food production. In addition, given their unique features, such as extraordinary stability and antimicrobial properties, members of the sporobiota present interesting candidates for biotechnological applications, such as sustainable plant protection products or in a clinical setting. For this, however, more information is needed on the spore-forming community of agricultural installations, ultimately promoting a transition toward a more sustainable agriculture.

Soil microbial community structures are shaped by agricultural systems revealing little temporal variation

Many studies in soil microbial ecology are undertaken with a single sampling event, with the influence of temporal progression rarely being considered. Under field conditions, soil samples were taken from different agricultural systems; a sown grassland to maize rotation (MC), an intensively managed permanent grassland (INT), as well as extensively managed permanent grasslands with high (EXT_HP), low to sufficient (EXT_LP) and deficient available P (EXT_DP), six times throughout the 2017 growing season. Thus, this study aimed to determine if any differences in soil microbiome structures between both sharply contrasting (MC - INT - EXT), slightly differing (EXT_HP - EXT_DP) and quite similar (EXT_HP - EXT_LP and EXT_LP - EXT_DP) agricultural systems persist through changing growth conditions within the growing season. For both fungal and bacterial community structure, the influence of agricultural system (CV = 0.256, P < 0.001 and CV = 0.145, P < 0.01, respectively) was much greater than that of temporal progression (√CV = 0.065 and 0.042, respectively, both P < 0.001). Importantly, nearly all agricultural systems persistently harbored significantly distinct fungal community structures across each of the six sampling events (all at least P < 0.05). There were not as many pairwise differences in bacterial community structure between the agricultural systems, but some did persist (MC and EXT_HP ∼ EXT_DP, all P < 0.001). Additionally, persistent indicator fungal OTUs (IndVal >0.7, P ≤ 0.05) associated to each agricultural system (except EXT_LP) were found in each of the six sampling events. These results highlight the temporal stability of pairwise differences in soil microbiome structures between established agricultural systems through changing plant growth conditions, even between those with a comparable management regime. This is a highly relevant finding in informing the sampling strategy of studies in soil microbial ecology as well as for designing efficient soil biodiversity monitoring systems.

Dynamic of bacterial and archaeal diversity in a tropical soil over 6 years of repeated organic and inorganic fertilization

The soil microbial community plays important roles in nutrient cycling, plant pathogen suppression, decomposition of residues and degradation of pollutants; as such, it is often regarded as a good indicator of soil quality. Repeated applications of mixed organic and inorganic materials in agriculture improve the soil microbial quality and in turn crop productivity. The soil microbial quality following several years of repeated fertilizer inputs has received considerable attention, but the dynamic of this community over time has never been assessed. We used high-throughput sequencing targeting 16S ribosomal RNA genes to investigate the evolution of the bacterial and archaeal community throughout 6 years of repeated organic and inorganic fertilizer applications. Soils were sampled from a field experiment in La Mare (Reunion Island, France), where different mixed organic-inorganic fertilizer inputs characterized by more or less stable organic matter were applied regularly for 6 years. Soil samples were taken each year, more than 6 months after the latest fertilizer application. The soil molecular biomass significantly increased in some organically fertilized plots (by 35–45% on average), 3–5 years after the first fertilizers application. The significant variations in soil molecular microbial biomass were explained by the fertilization practices (cumulated organic carbon inputs) and sometimes by the soil parameters (sand and soil carbon contents). The structure of the bacterial and archaeal community was more influenced by time than by the fertilization type. However, repeated fertilizer applications over time tended to modify the abundance of the bacterial phyla Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria. To conclude, the present study highlights that the soil bacterial and archaeal community is lastingly modified after 6 years of repeated fertilizer inputs. These changes depend on the nature of the organic input and on the fertilization practice (frequency and applied quantity).

Wheat Rhizosphere Microbiota Respond to Changes in Plant Genotype, Chemical Inputs, and Plant Phenotypic Plasticity

Modern wheat varieties that were selected since the Green Revolution are generally grown with synthetic chemical inputs, and ancient varieties released before1960 without. Thus, when changes occur in rhizosphere microbiota structure, it is not possible to distinguish if they are due to (i) changes in wheat genotypes by breeding, (ii) modifications of the environment via synthetic chemical inputs, or (iii) phenotypic plasticity, the interaction between wheat genotype and the environment. Using a crossed factorial design in the field, we evaluated the effects of either modern or ancient wheat varieties grown with or without chemical inputs (a N fertilizer, a fungicide, and an herbicide) on “microbiome as a phenotype.” We analyzed the rhizosphere microbiota by bacterial and fungal amplicon sequencing, coupled with microscope observations of mycorrhizal associations. We found that plant genotype and phenotypic plasticity had the most influence on rhizosphere microbiota, whereas inputs had only marginal effects. Phenotypic plasticity was particularly important in explaining diversity variations in bacteria and fungi but had no impact on the mycorrhizal association. Our results show an interest in considering the interaction between wheat genotype and the environment in breeding programs, by focusing on genes involved in the phenotypic plasticity of plant-microbe interactions.