Systematic review of the physiological and health-related effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure from wireless communication devices on children and adolescents in experimental and epidemiological human studies

A comprehensive review of 5G NR RF-EMF exposure assessment technologies: fundamentals, advancements, challenges, niches, and implications

This review offers a detailed examination of the current landscape of radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic field (EMF) assessment tools, ranging from spectrum analyzers and broadband field meters to area monitors and custom-built devices. The discussion encompasses both standardized and non-standardized measurement protocols, shedding light on the various methods employed in this domain. Furthermore, the review highlights the prevalent use of mobile apps for characterizing 5G NR radio network data. A growing need for low-cost measurement devices is observed, commonly referred to as "sensors" or "sensor nodes", that are capable of enduring diverse environmental conditions. These sensors play a crucial role in both microenvironmental surveys and individual exposures, enabling stationary, mobile, and personal exposure assessments based on body-worn sensors, across wider geographical areas. This review revealed a notable need for cost-effective and long-lasting sensors, whether for individual exposure assessments, mobile (vehicle-integrated) measurements, or incorporation into distributed sensor networks. However, there is a lack of comprehensive information on existing custom-developed RF-EMF measurement tools, especially in terms of measuring uncertainty. Additionally, there is a need for real-time, fast-sampling solutions to understand the highly irregular temporal variations EMF distribution in next-generation networks. Given the diversity of tools and methods, a comprehensive comparison is crucial to determine the necessary statistical tools for aggregating the available measurement data.

Effects of 4G Long-Term Evolution Electromagnetic Fields on Thyroid Hormone Dysfunction and Behavioral Changes in Adolescent Male Mice

Radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) can penetrate tissues and potentially influence endocrine and brain development. Despite increased mobile phone use among children and adolescents, the long-term effects of RF-EMF exposure on brain and endocrine development remain unclear. This study investigated the effects of long-term evolution band (LTE) EMF exposure on thyroid hormone levels, crucial for metabolism, growth, and development. Four-week-old male mice (C57BL/6) were exposed to LTE EMF (whole-body average specific absorption rate [SAR] 4 W/kg) or a positive control (lead; Pb, 300 ppm in drinking water) for 4 weeks. Subsequently, the mice underwent behavioral tests including open field, marble burying, and nest building. Blood pituitary and thyroid hormone levels, and thyroid hormone-regulating genes within the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis were analyzed. LTE exposure increased T3 levels, while Pb exposure elevated T3 and T4 and decreased ACTH levels. The LTE EMF group showed no gene expression alterations in the thyroid and pituitary glands, but hypothalamic Dio2 and Dio3 expressions were significantly reduced compared to that in the sham-exposed group. Pb exposure altered the hypothalamic mRNA levels of Oatp1c1 and Trh, pituitary mRNA of Trhr, and Tpo and Tg expression in the thyroid. In conclusion, LTE EMF exposure altered hypothalamic Dio2 and Dio3 expression, potentially impacting the HPT axis function. Further research is needed to explore RF-EMF's impacts on the endocrine system.

The effect of exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields on cognitive performance in human experimental studies: Systematic review and meta-analyses

BACKGROUND

The objective of this review is to evaluate the associations between short-term exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) and cognitive performance in human experimental studies.

METHODS

Online databases (PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science and EMF-Portal) were searched for studies that evaluated effects of exposure to RF-EMF on seven domains of cognitive performance in human experimental studies. The assessment of study quality was based on the Risk of Bias (RoB) tool developed by the Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT). Random effects meta-analyses of Hedges's g were conducted separately for accuracy- and speed-related performance measures of various cognitive domains, for which data from at least two studies were available. Finally, the certainty of evidence for each identified outcome was assessed according to Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE).

RESULTS

57,543 records were identified and 76 studies (80 reports) met the inclusion criteria. The included 76 studies with 3846 participants, consisting of humans of different age, sex and health status from 19 countries, were conducted between 1989 and 2021. Quantitative data from 50 studies (52 reports) with 2433 participants were included into the meta-analyses. These studies were performed in 15 countries between 2001 and 2021. The majority of the included studies used head exposure with GSM 900 uplink. None of the meta-analyses observed a statistically significant effect of RF-EMF exposure compared to sham on cognitive performance as measured by the confidence interval surrounding the Hedges's g or the significance of the z-statistic. For the domain Orientation and Attention, subclass Attention - Attentional Capacity RF-EMF exposure results in little to no difference in accuracy (Hedges's g 0.024, 95 % CI [-0.10; 0.15], I2 = 28 %, 473 participants). For the domain Orientation and Attention, subclass Attention - Concentration / Focused Attention RF-EMF exposure results in little to no difference in speed (Hedges's g 0.005, 95 % CI [-0.17; 0.18], I2 = 7 %, 132 participants) and probably results in little to no difference in accuracy; it does not reduce accuracy (Hedges's g 0.097, 95 % CI [-0.05; 0.24], I2 = 0 %, 217 participants). For the domain Orientation and Attention, subclass Attention - Vigilance RF-EMF exposure probably results in little to no difference in speed and does not reduce speed (Hedges's g 0.118, 95 % CI [-0.04; 0.28], I2 = 41 %, 247 participants) and results in little to no difference in accuracy (Hedges's g 0.042, 95 % CI, [-0.09; 0.18], I2 = 0 %, 199 participants). For the domain Orientation and Attention, subclass Attention - Selective Attention RF-EMF exposure probably results in little to no difference in speed and does not reduce speed (Hedges's g 0.080, 95 % CI [-0.09; 0.25], I2 = 63 %, 452 participants); it may result in little to no difference in accuracy, but it probably does not reduce accuracy (Hedges's g 0.178, 95 % CI [-0.02; 0.38], I2 = 68 %, 480 participants). For the domain Orientation and Attention, subclass Attention - Divided Attention RF-EMF exposure results in little to no difference in speed (Hedges's g -0.010, 95 % CI [-0.14; 0.12], I2 = 5 %, 307 participants) and may result in little to no difference in accuracy (Hedges's g -0.089, 95 % CI [-0.35; 0.18], I2 = 53 %, 167 participants). For the domain Orientation and Attention, subclass Processing Speed - Simple Reaction Time Task RF-EMF exposure results in little to no difference in speed (Hedges's g 0.069, 95 % CI [-0.02; +0.16], I2 = 29 %, 820 participants). For the domain Orientation and Attention, subclass Processing Speed - 2-Choice Reaction Time Task RF-EMF exposure results in little to no difference in speed (Hedges's g -0.023, 95 % CI [-0.13; 0.08], I2 = 0 %, 401 participants), and may result in little to no difference in accuracy (Hedges's g -0.063, 95 % CI [-0.38; 0.25], I2 = 63 %, 117 participants). For the domain Orientation and Attention, subclass Processing Speed - >2-Choice Reaction Time Task RF-EMF exposure results in little to no difference in speed (Hedges's g -0.054, 95 % CI [-0.14; 0.03], I2 = 0 %, 544 participants) and probably results in little to no difference in accuracy (Hedges's g -0.129, 95 % CI [-0.30; 0.04], I2 = 0 %, 131 participants). For the domain Orientation and Attention, subclass Processing Speed - Other Tasks RF-EMF exposure probably results in little to no difference in speed and does not reduce speed (Hedges's g 0.067, 95 % CI [-0.12; 0.26], I2 = 38 %, 249 participants); it results in little to no difference in accuracy (Hedges's g 0.036, 95 % CI [-0.08; 0.15], I2 = 0 %, 354 participants). For the domain Orientation and Attention, subclass Working Memory - n-back Task (0-3-back) we found Hedges's g ranging from -0.090, 95 % CI [-0.18; 0.01] to 0.060, 95 % CI [-0.06; 0.18], all I2 = 0 %, 237 to 474 participants, and conclude that RF-EMF exposure results in little to no difference in both speed and accuracy. For the domain Orientation and Attention, subclass Working Memory - Mental Tracking RF-EMF exposure results in little to no difference in accuracy (Hedges's g -0.047, 95 % [CI -0.15; 0.05], I2 = 0 %, 438 participants). For the domain Perception, subclass Visual and Auditory Perception RF-EMF exposure may result in little to no difference in speed (Hedges's g -0.015, 95 % CI [-0.23; 0.195], I2 = 0 %, 84 participants) and probably results in little to no difference in accuracy (Hedges's g 0.035, 95 % CI [-0.13; 0.199], I2 = 0 %, 137 participants). For the domain Memory, subclass Verbal and Visual Memory RF-EMF exposure probably results in little to no difference in speed and does not reduce speed (Hedges's g 0.042, 95 % CI [-0.15; 0.23], I2 = 0 %, 102 participants); it may result in little to no difference in accuracy (Hedges's g -0.087, 95 % CI [-0.38; 0.20], I2 = 85 %, 625 participants). For the domain Verbal Functions and Language Skills, subclass Verbal Expression, a meta-analysis was not possible because one of the two included studies did not provide numerical values. Results of both studies did not indicate statistically significant effects of RF-EMF exposure on both speed and accuracy. For the domain Construction and Motor Performance, subclass Motor Skills RF-EMF exposure may reduce speed, but the evidence is very uncertain (Hedges's g -0.919, 95 % CI [-3.09; 1.26], I2 = 96 %, 42 participants); it probably results in little to no difference in accuracy and does not reduce accuracy (Hedges's g 0.228, 95 % CI [-0.01; 0.46], I2 = 0 %, 109 participants). For the domain Concept Formation and Reasoning, subclass Reasoning RF-EMF exposure results in little to no difference in speed (Hedges's g 0.010, 95 % CI [-0.11; 0.13], I2 = 0 %, 263 participants) and probably results in little to no difference in accuracy and does not reduce accuracy (Hedges's g 0.051, 95 % CI [-0.14; 0.25], I2 = 0 %, 100 participants). For the domain Concept Formation and Reasoning, subclass Mathematical Procedures RF-EMF exposure results in little to no difference in speed (Hedges's g 0.033, 95 % CI [-0.12; 0.18], I2 = 0 %, 168 participants) and may result in little to no difference in accuracy but probably does not reduce accuracy (Hedges's g 0.232, 95 % CI [-0.12; +0.59], I2 = 86 %, 253 participants). For the domain Executive Functions there were no studies.

DISCUSSION

Overall, the results from all domains and subclasses across their speed- and accuracy-related outcome measures according to GRADE provide high to low certainty of evidence that short-term RF-EMF exposure does not reduce cognitive performance in human experimental studies. For 16 out of 35 subdomains some uncertainty remains, because of limitations in the study quality, inconsistency in the results or imprecision of the combined effect size estimate. Future research should focus on construction and motor performance, elderly, and consideration of both sexes.

OTHER

This review was partially funded by the WHO radioprotection programme. The protocol for this review was registered in Prospero reg. no. CRD42021236168 and published in Environment International (Pophof et al. 2021).

The effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields exposure on human self-reported symptoms: A systematic review of human experimental studies

BACKGROUND

The technological applications of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) have been steadily increasing since the 1950s exposing large proportions of the population. The World Health Organization (WHO) is assessing the potential health effects of exposure to RF-EMF.

OBJECTIVES

To systematically assess the effects of exposure to RF-EMF on self-reported non-specific symptoms in human subjects and to assess the accuracy of perceptions of presence or absence of RF-EMF exposure.

METHODS

Eligibility criteria: experimental studies carried out in the general population and in individuals with idiopathic environmental intolerance attributed to EMF (IEI-EMF), in any language.

INFORMATION SOURCES

Medline, Web of Science, PsycInfo, Cochrane Library, Epistemonikos, Embase and EMF portal, searched till April 2022. Risk of Bias (ROB): we used the RoB tool developed by OHAT adapted to the topic of this review.

SYNTHESIS OF RESULTS

we synthesized studies using random effects meta-analysis and sensitivity analyses, where appropriate.

RESULTS

Included studies: 41 studies were included, mostly cross over trials and from Europe, with a total of 2,874 participants.

SYNTHESIS OF RESULTS

considering the primary outcomes, we carried out meta-analyses of 10 exposure-outcomes pairs. All evidence suggested no or small non-significant effects of exposure on symptoms with high (three comparisons), moderate (four comparisons), low (one comparison) and very low (two comparisons) certainty of evidence. The effects (standard mean difference, where positive values indicate presence of symptom being exposed) in the general population for head exposure were (95% confidence intervals) 0.08 (-0.07 to 0.22) for headache, -0.01 (-0.22 to 0.20) for sleeping disturbances and 0.13 (-0.51 to 0.76) for composite symptoms; and for whole-body exposure: 0.09 (-0.35 to 0.54), 0.00 (-0.15 to 0.15) for sleeping disturbances and -0.05 (-0.17 to 0.07) for composite symptoms. For IEI-EMF individuals SMD ranged from -0.19 to 0.11, all of them with confidence intervals crossing the value of zero. Further, the available evidence suggested that study volunteers could not perceive the EMF exposure status better than what is expected by chance and that IEI-EMF individuals could not determine EMF conditions better than the general population.

DISCUSSION

Limitations of evidence: experimental conditions are substantially different from real-life situations in the duration, frequency, distance and position of the exposure. Most studies were conducted in young, healthy volunteers, who might be more resilient to RF-EMF than the general population. The outcomes of interest in this systematic review were symptoms, which are self-reported. The available information did not allow to assess the potential effects of exposures beyond acute exposure and in elderly or in chronically ill people. It cannot be ruled out that a real EMF effect in IEI-EMF groups is masked by a mix with insensitive subjects. However, studies on symptoms reporting and/or field perceptions did not find any evidence that there were particularly vulnerable individuals in the IEI-EMF group, although in open provocation studies, when volunteers were informed about the presence or absence of EMF exposure, such differences were consistently observed.

INTERPRETATION

available evidence suggests that acute RF-EMF below regulatory limits does not cause symptoms and corresponding claims in the everyday life are related to perceived and not to real EMF exposure status.

Is the sustainability of exposure to non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation possible?

Technological advances imply an increase in artificially generating sources of electromagnetic fields (EMF), therefore, resulting in a permanent exposure of people and the environment (electromagnetic pollution). Inconsistent results have been published considering the evaluated health effects. The purpose of this study was to review scientific literature on EMF to provide a global and retrospective perspective, on the association between human exposure to non-ionizing radiation (NIR, mainly radiofrequency-EMF) and health and environmental effects. Studies on the health effects of 5G radiation exposure have not yet been performed with sufficient statistical power, as the exposure time is still relatively short and also the latency and intensity of exposure to 5G. The safety standards only consider thermal effects, do not contemplate non-thermal effects. We consider relevant to communicate this knowledge to the general public to improve education in this field, and to healthcare professionals to prevent diseases that may result from RF-EMF exposures.

The endocannabinoid system is involved in the anxiety-like behavior induced by dual-frequency 2.65/0.8 GHz electromagnetic radiation in mice

As wireless communication devices gain popularity, concerns about the potential risks of environmental exposure to complex frequency electromagnetic radiation (EMR) on mental health have become a public health issue. Historically, EMR research has predominantly focused on single- frequency electromagnetic waves, neglecting the study of multi-frequency electromagnetic waves, which more accurately represent everyday life. To address these concerns, our study compared the emotional effects of single-frequency and dual-frequency EMR while exploring potential molecular mechanisms and intervention targets. Our results revealed that single-frequency EMR at 2.65 or 0.8 GHz did not induce anxiety-like behavior in mice. However, exposure to dual-frequency EMR at 2.65/0.8 GHz significantly led to anxiety-like behavior in mice. Further analysis of mouse sera revealed substantial increases in corticosterone and corticotrophin releasing hormone levels following exposure to 2.65/0.8 GHz EMR. Transcriptome sequencing indicated a significant decrease in the expression of Cnr1, encoding cannabinoid receptor 1 Type (CB1R), in the cerebral. This finding was consistently verified through western blot analysis, revealing a substantial reduction in CB1R content. Additionally, a significant decrease in the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol was observed in the cerebral cortex. Remarkably, administering the cannabinoid receptor agonist Win55-212-2 significantly alleviated the anxiety-like behavior, and the cannabinoid receptor antagonist AM251 effectively counteracted the anti-anxiety effects of Win55-212-2. In summary, our research confirmed that dual-frequency EMR is more likely to induce anxiety-like behavior in mice than single-frequency EMR, with implications for the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the endocannabinoid system. Furthermore, our findings suggest that Win55-212-2 may represent a novel avenue for researching and developing anti-EMR drugs.

Indirect effects of interference of two emerging environmental contaminants on cell health: Radiofrequency radiation and gold nanoparticles

BACKGROUND

The global need for wireless technologies is growing rapidly. So, we have been exposed to a new type of environmental pollution: radiofrequency radiation (RFR). Recent studies have shown that RFR can cause not only direct effects but also indirect or non-targeted effects such as the bystander effect (BE). In this study, we investigated the BE induced by RFR in the present of gold nanoparticles (GNP). Moreover, we studied the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2).

METHODS

Non-toxic dose of 15-nm GNP was used to treat the Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells. After 48 h of incubation, cells were exposed to 900 MHz GSM RFR for 24 h. Then we collected the cell culture medium of these cells (conditioned culture medium, CCM) and transferred it to new cells (bystander cells). Cell deaths, DNA breaks, oxidative stress and COX-2 expression were analyzed in all groups.

RESULTS

The results showed that RFR increased metabolic death in cells treated with GNP. Inversely, the colony formation ability was reduced in bystander cells and RFR exposed cells either in the presence or absence of GNP. Also, the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in GNP treated cells showed a significant reduction compared to those of untreated cells. However, RFR-induced DNA breaks and the frequencies of micronuclei (MN) were not significantly affected by GNP. The expression of COX-2 mRNA increased in RFR GNP treated cells, but the difference was not significant.

CONCLUSION

Our results for the first time indicated that RFR induce indirect effects in the presence of GNP. However, the molecular mediators of these effects differ from those in the absence of GNP. Also, to our knowledge, this is the first study to show that COX-2 is not involved in the bystander effect induced by 900 MHz RFR.

A systematic review on cellular responses of Escherichia coli to nonthermal electromagnetic irradiation

Investigation of Escherichia coli under electromagnetic fields is of significance in human studies owing to its short doubling time and human-like DNA mechanisms. The present review aims to systematically evaluate the literature to conclude causality between 0 and 300 GHz electromagnetic fields and biological effects in E. coli. To that end, the OHAT methodology and risk of bias tool were employed. Exponentially growing cells exposed for over 30 min at temperatures up to3 7 ∘ C $3{7}^{\circ }\,{\rm{C}}$ with fluctuations below1 ∘ C ${1}^{\circ }\,{\rm{C}}$ were included from the Web-of-Knowledge, PubMed, or EMF-Portal databases. Out of 904 records identified, 25 articles satisfied the selection criteria, with four excluded during internal validation. These articles examined cell growth (11 studies), morphology (three studies), and gene regulation (11 studies). Most experiments (85%) in the included studies focused on the extremely low-frequency (ELF) range, with 60% specifically at 50 Hz. Changes in growth rate were observed in 74% of ELF experiments and 71% of radio frequency (RF) experiments. Additionally, 80% of ELF experiments showed morphology changes, while gene expression changes were seen in 33% (ELF) and 50% (RF) experiments. Due to the limited number of studies, especially in the intermediate frequency and RF ranges, establishing correlations between EMF exposure and biological effects on E. coli is not possible.

Personal exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields in various occupations in Spain and France

BACKGROUND

A preliminary job-exposure matrix (JEM) for radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) was created based on self-reported occupational information from a multi-country population-based study of approximately 10,000 participants combined with available measurement data compiled in a source-exposure matrix (spot measurements). In order to address the limited personal occupational RF-EMF measurement data available in the literature, we performed a measurement campaign among workers in various occupations in Spain and France.

METHODS

Personal full-shift measurements were conducted using RadMan 2XT™ (Narda) devices. A worker diary was used to capture information on occupational and background sources of RF exposure during the shift. Inclusion of occupations to be measured was initially based on exposure prevalence and level information in the preliminary JEM and expert judgment.

RESULTS

Personal full-shift measurements were conducted among 333 workers representing 46 ISCO88 occupations. Exposure to electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields was infrequent with >99% of measurements below the detection limit of the device (≥1% of the 1998 ICNIRP standards). A total of 50.2% and 77.2% of workers were ever exposed to E and H fields respectively (having at least one recorded 1-second measurement above the detection limit). Workers in elementary occupations, technicians and associate professionals, plant and machine operators and assemblers had somewhat greater numbers of measurements above the detection limit, higher maximum values and longer exposure durations. A small proportion of measurements were ≥100% of the standards, though these exceedances were brief (generally a few seconds in duration). Female workers and workers reporting use of any RF-EMF emitting source were more likely to have a measured exposure to E and H fields.

CONCLUSION

We conducted personal RF-EMF measurements among workers in various occupations in Spain and France. Overall, RF-EMF exposure ≥1 % ICNIRP was infrequent, despite some intermittent exposures ≥100% observed among workers in some occupations.

Metabolic, Apoptotic and Fibro-Inflammatory Profiles of the Heart Exposed to Environmental Electromagnetic Fields

Environmental stress can disturb the integrative functioning of the cardiovascular system and trigger a number of adaptive and/or maladaptive cell responses. Concomitant with the expanding use of mobile communication systems, public exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) raises the question of the impact of 900 MHz EMFs on cardiovascular health. Therefore, in this study, we experimentally investigated whether 915 MHz EMF exposure influenced cardiac metabolic, antioxidant, apoptotic, and fibro-inflammatory profiles in a mouse model. Healthy mice were sham-exposed or exposed to EMF for 14 days. Western blot analysis using whole cardiac tissue lysates demonstrated that there was no significant change in the expression of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) complexes between the control and EMF-exposed mice. In addition, the myocardial expression of fibro-inflammatory cytokines, antioxidant enzymes, and apoptosis-related markers remained unchanged in the EMF-challenged hearts. Finally, the structural integrity of the cardiac tissues was preserved among the groups. These findings suggest that the apoptotic, antioxidant, metabolic, and fibro-inflammatory profiles of the heart remained stable under conditions of EMF exposure in the analyzed mice.

Consciousness and inward electromagnetic field interactions

Electromagnetic field (EMF) theories of mind/brain integration have been proposed to explain brain function for over seventy years. Interest in this theory continues to this day because it explains mind-brain integration and it offers a simple solution to the “binding problem” of our unified conscious experience. Thus, it addresses at least in part the “hard problem” of consciousness. EMFs are easily measured and many corelates have been noted for field activity; associated with loss and recovery of consciousness, sensory perceptions, and behavior. Unfortunately, the theory was challenged early on by experiments that were thought to have ruled out a role of EMFs in brain activity, and the field of neuroscience has since marginalized EMF theories. Here I explain why early evidence against EMFs contributing to consciousness was misinterpreted and offer an alternative view to help direct future research.