1
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Pollenz RS, Barnhill K, Biggs A, Bland J, Carter V, Chase M, Clark H, Coleman C, Daffner M, Deam C, Finocchiaro A, Franco V, Fuller T, Pinera JG, Horne M, Howard Z, Kanahan O, Miklaszewski C, Miller S, Morgan R, Onalaja O, Otero L, Padhye S, Rainey E, Rasul F, Robichaux K, Rodier A, Schlosser S, Sciacchitano A, Stewart E, Thakkar R, Heller DM. A genome-wide cytotoxicity screen of cluster F1 mycobacteriophage Girr reveals novel inhibitors of Mycobacterium smegmatis growth. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2024; 14:jkae049. [PMID: 38456318 PMCID: PMC11075535 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkae049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
Over the past decade, thousands of bacteriophage genomes have been sequenced and annotated. A striking observation from this work is that known structural features and functions cannot be assigned for >65% of the encoded proteins. One approach to begin experimentally elucidating the function of these uncharacterized gene products is genome-wide screening to identify phage genes that confer phenotypes of interest like inhibition of host growth. This study describes the results of a screen evaluating the effects of overexpressing each gene encoded by the temperate Cluster F1 mycobacteriophage Girr on the growth of the host bacterium Mycobacterium smegmatis. Overexpression of 29 of the 102 Girr genes (~28% of the genome) resulted in mild to severe cytotoxicity. Of the 29 toxic genes described, 12 have no known function and are predominately small proteins of <125 amino acids. Overexpression of the majority of these 12 cytotoxic no known functions proteins resulted in moderate to severe growth reduction and represent novel antimicrobial products. The remaining 17 toxic genes have predicted functions, encoding products involved in phage structure, DNA replication/modification, DNA binding/gene regulation, or other enzymatic activity. Comparison of this dataset with prior genome-wide cytotoxicity screens of mycobacteriophages Waterfoul and Hammy reveals some common functional themes, though several of the predicted Girr functions associated with cytotoxicity in our report, including genes involved in lysogeny, have not been described previously. This study, completed as part of the HHMI-supported SEA-GENES project, highlights the power of parallel, genome-wide overexpression screens to identify novel interactions between phages and their hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard S Pollenz
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Kaylee Barnhill
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Abbigail Biggs
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Jackson Bland
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Victoria Carter
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Michael Chase
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Hayley Clark
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Caitlyn Coleman
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Marshall Daffner
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Caitlyn Deam
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Alyssa Finocchiaro
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Vanessa Franco
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Thomas Fuller
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Juan Gallardo Pinera
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Mae Horne
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Zoe Howard
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Olivia Kanahan
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | | | - Sydney Miller
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Ryan Morgan
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Oluwatobi Onalaja
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Louis Otero
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Shivani Padhye
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Emily Rainey
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Fareed Rasul
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Kobe Robichaux
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Alexandra Rodier
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Sydni Schlosser
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Ava Sciacchitano
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Emma Stewart
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Rajvi Thakkar
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
| | - Danielle M Heller
- Center for the Advancement of Science Leadership and Culture, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20185, USA
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2
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Adams RM, Britton HA, Bruce ED, De La Paz Y, Kratz EN, Pfeifer EJ, Priddy DE, Schotter BI, Stuffle WA, Wagner J, Weiss MR, Watt DK, Connerly PL, Rueschhoff EE. Genome sequence of Soos: a siphovirus of the CP cluster infecting Gordonia rubripertincta . Microbiol Resour Announc 2024; 13:e0120423. [PMID: 38526095 PMCID: PMC11008160 DOI: 10.1128/mra.01204-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Novel actinobacteriophage Soos was isolated and purified from Southern Indiana soil using host Gordonia rubripertincta NRRL B-16540. Sequencing revealed a 57,509 bp circularly permuted genome encoding 87 predicted protein-coding genes. Soos is only the third phage in cluster CP, along with phages Clawz and Sting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reese M. Adams
- School of Natural Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, Indiana, USA
| | - Holly A. Britton
- School of Natural Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, Indiana, USA
| | - Emily D. Bruce
- School of Natural Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, Indiana, USA
| | - Yucita De La Paz
- School of Natural Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, Indiana, USA
| | - Emily N. Kratz
- School of Natural Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, Indiana, USA
| | - Emma J. Pfeifer
- School of Natural Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, Indiana, USA
| | - Daisy E. Priddy
- School of Natural Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, Indiana, USA
| | - Brooklyn I. Schotter
- School of Natural Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, Indiana, USA
| | - Wyatt A. Stuffle
- School of Natural Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, Indiana, USA
| | - Jordyn Wagner
- School of Natural Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, Indiana, USA
| | - Meredith R. Weiss
- School of Natural Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, Indiana, USA
| | - Danielle K. Watt
- School of Natural Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, Indiana, USA
| | - Pamela L. Connerly
- School of Natural Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, Indiana, USA
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3
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Das R, Nadar K, Arora R, Bajpai U. Unlocking prophage potential: In silico and experimental analysis of a novel Mycobacterium fortuitum LysinB containing a peptidoglycan-binding domain. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.15.580446. [PMID: 38405724 PMCID: PMC10888907 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.15.580446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Endolysins are highly evolved bacteriophage-encoded lytic enzymes produced to damage the bacterial cell wall for phage progeny release. They offer promising potential as highly specific lytic proteins with a low chance of bacterial resistance. The diversity in lysin sequences and domain organization can be staggering. In silico analysis of bacteriophage and prophage genomes can help identify endolysins exhibiting unique features and high antibacterial activity, hence feeding the pipeline of narrow-spectrum protein antibiotics. Mycobacteriophage lysis cassettes mostly have two lytic enzymes, LysinA and LysinB. The enzyme LysinA targets peptidoglycan in the cell wall and possesses a modular architecture. LysinB typically contains a single domain and acts upon the mycolyl ester linkages in mycolyl-arabinogalactan-peptidoglycan (Payne et al., 2010). This study aimed to find novel LysinBs against Mycobacterium fortuitum. After a detailed in silico characterization of lysis cassettes from three M. fortuitum prophages, we chose to work on a LysinB (hereafter described as LysinB_MF) found in an incomplete prophage (phiE1336, 9.4 kb in strain E1336). LysinB_MF showed low sequence similarity with any other endolysins in the database and formed a separate clade on phylogenetic analysis. LysinB_MF's structure, extracted from the AlphaFold Protein Structure Database, demonstrated a modular architecture with two structurally distinct domains: a peptidoglycan-binding domain (PGBD) at the N-terminal and the characteristic alpha/beta hydrolase domain connected via a linker peptide. We found the alpha/beta hydrolase domain, which is the enzyme-active domain (EAD), contains the conserved Ser-Asp-His catalytic triad with a tunnel-like topology and forms intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The PGBD shows structural similarity to the cell-wall binding domain of an amidase from Clostridium acetobutylicum, hinting at its acquisition due to domain mobility. Our in silico electrostatic potential analysis suggested that PGBD might be essential to the enzyme activity. This was experimentally validated by generating a truncated version of the enzyme, which demonstrated about six-fold decreased activity compared to its native form. The antimycobacterial activity of this enzyme was also compromised in its absence. Based on our analysis, PGBD emerged as an integral constituent of enzymes with diverse functional properties and is predicted to be a conserved cross-kingdom. Overall, this study highlights the importance of mining mycobacterial prophages as a novel endolysin source. It also provides unique insights into the diverse architecture of mycobacteriophage-encoded endolysins and the importance of functional domains for their catalytic activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritam Das
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena-07737, Germany
- Department of Life Science, Acharya Narendra Dev College, University of Delhi, Govindpuri, Kalkaji-110019, New Delhi, India
| | - Kanika Nadar
- Department of Biomedical Science, Acharya Narendra Dev College, University of Delhi, Govindpuri, Kalkaji-110019, New Delhi, India
| | - Ritu Arora
- Department of Biomedical Science, Acharya Narendra Dev College, University of Delhi, Govindpuri, Kalkaji-110019, New Delhi, India
| | - Urmi Bajpai
- Department of Biomedical Science, Acharya Narendra Dev College, University of Delhi, Govindpuri, Kalkaji-110019, New Delhi, India
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Cousins SR, Dufour GR, Law K, Nichols RM, Sladek BJ, Aniapam CR, Tarbox BP, Savage EF. Genome sequence of the lytic bacteriophage Alucard, a cluster EE actinophage. Microbiol Resour Announc 2024; 13:e0101723. [PMID: 38051077 DOI: 10.1128/mra.01017-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacteriophage Alucard is a lytic phage isolated from the soil collected in southern Maine on Microbacterium foliorum NRRL B-24224. Alucard has siphovirus morphology with a 17,363-bp genome encoding 25 putative genes. Based on gene content similarity to actinobacteriophages, Alucard is assigned to cluster EE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel R Cousins
- Biology, Southern Maine Community College , South Portland, Maine, USA
| | - Gemma R Dufour
- Biology, Southern Maine Community College , South Portland, Maine, USA
| | - Kendra Law
- Biology, Southern Maine Community College , South Portland, Maine, USA
| | - Robert M Nichols
- Biology, Southern Maine Community College , South Portland, Maine, USA
| | - Bradi J Sladek
- Biology, Southern Maine Community College , South Portland, Maine, USA
| | | | - Brian P Tarbox
- Biology, Southern Maine Community College , South Portland, Maine, USA
| | - Emily F Savage
- Biology, Southern Maine Community College , South Portland, Maine, USA
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5
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Samir S. Molecular Machinery of the Triad Holin, Endolysin, and Spanin: Key Players Orchestrating Bacteriophage-Induced Cell Lysis and their Therapeutic Applications. Protein Pept Lett 2024; 31:85-96. [PMID: 38258777 DOI: 10.2174/0109298665181166231212051621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Phage therapy, a promising alternative to combat multidrug-resistant bacterial infections, harnesses the lytic cycle of bacteriophages to target and eliminate bacteria. Key players in this process are the phage lysis proteins, including holin, endolysin, and spanin, which work synergistically to disrupt the bacterial cell wall and induce lysis. Understanding the structure and function of these proteins is crucial for the development of effective therapies. Recombinant versions of these proteins have been engineered to enhance their stability and efficacy. Recent progress in the field has led to the approval of bacteriophage-based therapeutics as drugs, paving the way for their clinical use. These proteins can be combined in phage cocktails or combined with antibiotics to enhance their activity against bacterial biofilms, a common cause of treatment failure. Animal studies and clinical trials are being conducted to evaluate the safety and efficacy of phage therapy in humans. Overall, phage therapy holds great potential as a valuable tool in the fight against multidrug- resistant bacteria, offering hope for the future of infectious disease treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Safia Samir
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
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6
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Han X, Han S, Li Y, Li K, Yang L, Ma D, Fang Z, Yin J, Zhu Y, Gong S. Double roles of light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b binding protein TaLhc2 in wheat stress tolerance and photosynthesis. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 253:127215. [PMID: 37793527 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Revised: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
Light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b binding proteins are encoded by nucleus genes and widely involve in capturing light energy, transferring energy, and responding to various stresses. However, their roles in wheat photosynthesis and stress tolerance are largely unknown. Here, Triticum aestivumlight-harvesting chlorophyll a/b binding protein TaLhc2 was identified. It showed subcellular localization in chloroplast, contained light responsive cis-elements, and highly expressed in green tissues and down-regulated by multiple stresses. TaLhc2 promoted the colonization of hemi-biotrophic pathogen; further analysis showed that TaLhc2 strengthened BAX-induced cell death, enhanced the ROS accumulation, and up-regulated pathogenesis-related genes; those results suggested that TaLhc2 has adverse influence on host immunity and function as a susceptible gene, thus host decreased its expression when faced with pathogen infection. RT-qPCR results showed that TaLhc2 was down-regulated by drought and salt stresses, while TaLhc2 improved the ROS accumulation under the two stresses, suggesting TaLhc2 may participate in wheat responding to abiotic stress. Additionally, TaLhc2 can increase the content of total chlorophyll and carotenoid by 1.3 % and 2.9 %, increase the net photosynthetic rate by 18 %, thus promote plant photosynthesis. Conclusively, we preliminarily deciphered the function of TaLhc2 in biotic/abiotic stresses and photosynthesis, which laid foundation for its usage in wheat breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowen Han
- MARA Key Laboratory of Sustainable Crop Production in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), College of Agriculture, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434025, Hubei, China.
| | - Shuo Han
- MARA Key Laboratory of Sustainable Crop Production in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), College of Agriculture, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434025, Hubei, China.
| | - Yiting Li
- MARA Key Laboratory of Sustainable Crop Production in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), College of Agriculture, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434025, Hubei, China.
| | - Keke Li
- MARA Key Laboratory of Sustainable Crop Production in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), College of Agriculture, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434025, Hubei, China.
| | - Lijun Yang
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management of Crops in Central China, Ministry of Agriculture/Hubei Key Laboratory of Crop Diseases, Insect Pests and Weeds Control, Institute of Plant Protection and Soil Science, Hubei Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430064, Hubei, China
| | - Dongfang Ma
- MARA Key Laboratory of Sustainable Crop Production in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), College of Agriculture, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434025, Hubei, China.
| | - Zhengwu Fang
- MARA Key Laboratory of Sustainable Crop Production in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), College of Agriculture, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434025, Hubei, China
| | - Junliang Yin
- MARA Key Laboratory of Sustainable Crop Production in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), College of Agriculture, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434025, Hubei, China.
| | - Yongxing Zhu
- MARA Key Laboratory of Sustainable Crop Production in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River (Co-construction by Ministry and Province), College of Agriculture, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434025, Hubei, China.
| | - Shuangjun Gong
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management of Crops in Central China, Ministry of Agriculture/Hubei Key Laboratory of Crop Diseases, Insect Pests and Weeds Control, Institute of Plant Protection and Soil Science, Hubei Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430064, Hubei, China.
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7
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Bishop E, Earley W, Greco A, Hofseth E, Kinerson E, Lafayette B, Llanot-Arocho N, Mazen B, Cevasco M, Williams DC. Genome sequence and annotation of the B3 mycobacteriophage Phayeta. Microbiol Resour Announc 2023; 12:e0091523. [PMID: 38014973 PMCID: PMC10720561 DOI: 10.1128/mra.00915-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacteriophage Phayeta was extracted from soil near Myrtle Beach, South Carolina using Mycobacterium smegmatis as a host. Annotation of the 68,700 base-pair circularly permuted genome identified 104 predicted protein-encoding genes, 34 of which have functional assignments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Bishop
- Department of Biology, Coastal Carolina University, Conway, South Carolina, USA
| | - Warren Earley
- Department of Biology, Coastal Carolina University, Conway, South Carolina, USA
| | - Alexandra Greco
- Department of Biology, Coastal Carolina University, Conway, South Carolina, USA
| | - Emma Hofseth
- Department of Biology, Coastal Carolina University, Conway, South Carolina, USA
| | - Emma Kinerson
- Department of Biology, Coastal Carolina University, Conway, South Carolina, USA
| | - Brandon Lafayette
- Department of Biology, Coastal Carolina University, Conway, South Carolina, USA
| | | | - Brittney Mazen
- Department of Biology, Coastal Carolina University, Conway, South Carolina, USA
| | - Megan Cevasco
- Department of Biology, Coastal Carolina University, Conway, South Carolina, USA
| | - Daniel C. Williams
- Department of Biology, Coastal Carolina University, Conway, South Carolina, USA
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8
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Amaya I, Edwards K, Wise BM, Bhattacharyya A, Pablo CHD, Mushrush E, Coats AN, Dao S, Dittmar G, Gore T, Jarva TM, Kenkebashvili G, Rathan-Kumar S, Reyes GM, Watts GL, Watts VK, Dubrow D, Lewis G, Stone BH, Xue B, Cresawn SG, Mavrodi D, Sivanathan V, Heller D. A genome-wide overexpression screen reveals Mycobacterium smegmatis growth inhibitors encoded by mycobacteriophage Hammy. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2023; 13:jkad240. [PMID: 37934806 PMCID: PMC10700055 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkad240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
During infection, bacteriophages produce diverse gene products to overcome bacterial antiphage defenses, to outcompete other phages, and to take over cellular processes. Even in the best-studied model phages, the roles of most phage-encoded gene products are unknown, and the phage population represents a largely untapped reservoir of novel gene functions. Considering the sheer size of this population, experimental screening methods are needed to sort through the enormous collection of available sequences and identify gene products that can modulate bacterial behavior for downstream functional characterization. Here, we describe the construction of a plasmid-based overexpression library of 94 genes encoded by Hammy, a Cluster K mycobacteriophage closely related to those infecting clinically important mycobacteria. The arrayed library was systematically screened in a plate-based cytotoxicity assay, identifying a diverse set of 24 gene products (representing ∼25% of the Hammy genome) capable of inhibiting growth of the host bacterium Mycobacterium smegmatis. Half of these are related to growth inhibitors previously identified in related phage Waterfoul, supporting their functional conservation; the other genes represent novel additions to the list of known antimycobacterial growth inhibitors. This work, conducted as part of the HHMI-supported Science Education Alliance Gene-function Exploration by a Network of Emerging Scientists (SEA-GENES) project, highlights the value of parallel, comprehensive overexpression screens in exploring genome-wide patterns of phage gene function and novel interactions between phages and their hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Amaya
- Center for the Advancement of Science Leadership and Culture, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20185, USA
| | - Kaylia Edwards
- Center for the Advancement of Science Leadership and Culture, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20185, USA
| | - Bethany M Wise
- Center for the Advancement of Science Leadership and Culture, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20185, USA
| | - Ankita Bhattacharyya
- School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Clint H D Pablo
- School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Ember Mushrush
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD 21250, USA
| | - Amber N Coats
- School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Sara Dao
- School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Grace Dittmar
- School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Taylor Gore
- School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Taiya M Jarva
- School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Giorgi Kenkebashvili
- School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Sudiksha Rathan-Kumar
- School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Gabriella M Reyes
- School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Garrett L Watts
- School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Victoria Kalene Watts
- School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Deena Dubrow
- Department of Biology, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA 22807, USA
| | - Gabrielle Lewis
- Department of Biology, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA 22807, USA
| | - Benjamin H Stone
- Department of Biology, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA 22807, USA
| | - Bingjie Xue
- Department of Biology, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA 22807, USA
| | - Steven G Cresawn
- Department of Biology, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA 22807, USA
| | - Dmitri Mavrodi
- School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39406, USA
| | - Viknesh Sivanathan
- Center for the Advancement of Science Leadership and Culture, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20185, USA
| | - Danielle Heller
- Center for the Advancement of Science Leadership and Culture, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20185, USA
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