1
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Viel KCMF, Parameswaran S, Donmez OA, Forney CR, Hass MR, Yin C, Jones SH, Prosser HK, Diouf AA, Gittens OE, Edsall LE, Chen X, Rowden H, Dunn KA, Guo R, VonHandorf A, Leong MML, Ernst K, Kaufman KM, Lawson LP, Gewurz B, Zhao B, Kottyan LC, Weirauch MT. Shared and distinct interactions of type 1 and type 2 Epstein-Barr Nuclear Antigen 2 with the human genome. BMC Genomics 2024; 25:273. [PMID: 38475709 PMCID: PMC10935964 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-024-10183-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There are two major genetic types of Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV): type 1 (EBV-1) and type 2 (EBV-2). EBV functions by manipulating gene expression in host B cells, using virus-encoded gene regulatory proteins including Epstein-Barr Nuclear Antigen 2 (EBNA2). While type 1 EBNA2 is known to interact with human transcription factors (hTFs) such as RBPJ, EBF1, and SPI1 (PU.1), type 2 EBNA2 shares only ~ 50% amino acid identity with type 1 and thus may have distinct binding partners, human genome binding locations, and functions. RESULTS In this study, we examined genome-wide EBNA2 binding in EBV-1 and EBV-2 transformed human B cells to identify shared and unique EBNA2 interactions with the human genome, revealing thousands of type-specific EBNA2 ChIP-seq peaks. Computational predictions based on hTF motifs and subsequent ChIP-seq experiments revealed that both type 1 and 2 EBNA2 co-occupy the genome with SPI1 and AP-1 (BATF and JUNB) hTFs. However, type 1 EBNA2 showed preferential co-occupancy with EBF1, and type 2 EBNA2 preferred RBPJ. These differences in hTF co-occupancy revealed possible mechanisms underlying type-specific gene expression of known EBNA2 human target genes: MYC (shared), CXCR7 (type 1 specific), and CD21 (type 2 specific). Both type 1 and 2 EBNA2 binding events were enriched at systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and multiple sclerosis (MS) risk loci, while primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) risk loci were specifically enriched for type 2 peaks. CONCLUSIONS This study reveals extensive type-specific EBNA2 interactions with the human genome, possible differences in EBNA2 interaction partners, and a possible new role for type 2 EBNA2 in autoimmune disorders. Our results highlight the importance of considering EBV type in the control of human gene expression and disease-related investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenyatta C M F Viel
- Molecular and Developmental Biology Graduate Program, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, 45267, USA
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Sreeja Parameswaran
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Omer A Donmez
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Carmy R Forney
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Matthew R Hass
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Cailing Yin
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Sydney H Jones
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Hayley K Prosser
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Arame A Diouf
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Olivia E Gittens
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Lee E Edsall
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Xiaoting Chen
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Hope Rowden
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Katelyn A Dunn
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Rui Guo
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, 145 Harrison Ave, Boston, MA, 02111, USA
| | - Andrew VonHandorf
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Merrin Man Long Leong
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Kevin Ernst
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Kenneth M Kaufman
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, 45267, USA
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Lucinda P Lawson
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA
| | - Ben Gewurz
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Bo Zhao
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Leah C Kottyan
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, 45267, USA.
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA.
| | - Matthew T Weirauch
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, 45267, USA.
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA.
- Division of Biomedical Informatics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA.
- Division of Developmental Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 45229, USA.
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2
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Idrees S, Paudel KR, Sadaf T, Hansbro PM. How different viruses perturb host cellular machinery via short linear motifs. EXCLI JOURNAL 2023; 22:1113-1128. [PMID: 38054205 PMCID: PMC10694346 DOI: 10.17179/excli2023-6328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
The virus interacts with its hosts by developing protein-protein interactions. Most viruses employ protein interactions to imitate the host protein: A viral protein with the same amino acid sequence or structure as the host protein attaches to the host protein's binding partner and interferes with the host protein's pathways. Being opportunistic, viruses have evolved to manipulate host cellular mechanisms by mimicking short linear motifs. In this review, we shed light on the current understanding of mimicry via short linear motifs and focus on viral mimicry by genetically different viral subtypes by providing recent examples of mimicry evidence and how high-throughput methods can be a reliable source to study SLiM-mediated viral mimicry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sobia Idrees
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Centre for Inflammation, Centenary Institute and the University of Technology Sydney, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Keshav Raj Paudel
- Centre for Inflammation, Centenary Institute and the University of Technology Sydney, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Tayyaba Sadaf
- Centre for Inflammation, Centenary Institute and the University of Technology Sydney, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Philip M. Hansbro
- Centre for Inflammation, Centenary Institute and the University of Technology Sydney, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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3
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Feng J, Zhang P, Yao P, Zhang H. EBNA2 mediates lipid metabolism and tumorigenesis through activation of ATF4 pathway. Am J Cancer Res 2023; 13:1363-1376. [PMID: 37168348 PMCID: PMC10164800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) can infect the majority of the human population with no obvious symptoms and is associated with tumor development, although the mechanism is still largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the role and the underlying mechanism of EBV nuclear antigen 2 (EBNA2) in tumorigenesis. We found that the infection of EBNA2 in human B lymphocytes (HBL) upregulated the expression of activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4). Furthermore, we used gene expression or knockdown approach to demonstrate the effect of EBNA2 on redox balance, mitochondrial function, lipid metabolism, and cell proliferation in both HBL and EBV-transformed lymphocyte cell line (LCL). More importantly, we applied in vivo xenograft tumor mouse model to explore the contribution of EBNA2 and ATF4 in tumor growth and mouse survival. Mechanistically, we revealed that EBNA2 exposure caused persistent expression of ATF4 via EBNA2-mediated epigenetic changes, which increased the binding ability of upstream stimulating factor 1 (USF1) on the ATF4 promoter. ATF4 activation in HBL cells modulated the expression of lipid metabolism-related genes and potentiated fatty acid oxidation and lipogenesis. Conversely, knockdown of either EBNA2 or ATF4 in LCL suppressed lipid metabolism, modulated redox balance and mitochondrial function, as well as inhibited tumor cell proliferation. In consistent with these findings from in vitro study, an in vivo xenograft model confirmed that knockdown of either EBNA2 or ATF4 inhibited the gene expression of SREBP1, ChREBP, and FAS, as well as suppressed tumor growth and prolonged animal survival. Collectively, this study demonstrates that EBNA2 mediates tumorigenesis through ATF4 activation and the modulation of lipid metabolism; therefore, our findings provide a novel avenue for the clinical treatment of EBV-mediated cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Feng
- Department of Hematology, Peking University Shenzhen Hospital Shenzhen 518036, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Ping Zhang
- Department of Hematology, Peking University Shenzhen Hospital Shenzhen 518036, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Paul Yao
- Department of Hematology, Peking University Shenzhen Hospital Shenzhen 518036, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Hongyu Zhang
- Department of Hematology, Peking University Shenzhen Hospital Shenzhen 518036, Guangdong, P. R. China
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4
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Zhao B. Epstein-Barr Virus B Cell Growth Transformation: The Nuclear Events. Viruses 2023; 15:832. [PMID: 37112815 PMCID: PMC10146190 DOI: 10.3390/v15040832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is the first human DNA tumor virus identified from African Burkitt's lymphoma cells. EBV causes ~200,000 various cancers world-wide each year. EBV-associated cancers express latent EBV proteins, EBV nuclear antigens (EBNAs), and latent membrane proteins (LMPs). EBNA1 tethers EBV episomes to the chromosome during mitosis to ensure episomes are divided evenly between daughter cells. EBNA2 is the major EBV latency transcription activator. It activates the expression of other EBNAs and LMPs. It also activates MYC through enhancers 400-500 kb upstream to provide proliferation signals. EBNALP co-activates with EBNA2. EBNA3A/C represses CDKN2A to prevent senescence. LMP1 activates NF-κB to prevent apoptosis. The coordinated activity of EBV proteins in the nucleus allows efficient transformation of primary resting B lymphocytes into immortalized lymphoblastoid cell lines in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Zhao
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 181 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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5
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Singh DR, Nelson SE, Pawelski AS, Cantres-Velez JA, Kansra AS, Pauly NP, Bristol JA, Hayes M, Ohashi M, Casco A, Lee D, Fogarty SA, Lambert PF, Johannsen EC, Kenney SC. Type 1 and Type 2 Epstein-Barr viruses induce proliferation, and inhibit differentiation, in infected telomerase-immortalized normal oral keratinocytes. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010868. [PMID: 36190982 PMCID: PMC9529132 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Differentiated epithelial cells are an important source of infectious EBV virions in human saliva, and latent Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is strongly associated with the epithelial cell tumor, nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). However, it has been difficult to model how EBV contributes to NPC, since EBV has not been shown to enhance proliferation of epithelial cells in monolayer culture in vitro and is not stably maintained in epithelial cells without antibiotic selection. In addition, although there are two major types of EBV (type 1 (T1) and type 2 (T2)), it is currently unknown whether T1 and T2 EBV behave differently in epithelial cells. Here we inserted a G418 resistance gene into the T2 EBV strain, AG876, allowing us to compare the phenotypes of T1 Akata virus versus T2 AG876 virus in a telomerase-immortalized normal oral keratinocyte cell line (NOKs) using a variety of different methods, including RNA-seq analysis, proliferation assays, immunoblot analyses, and air-liquid interface culture. We show that both T1 Akata virus infection and T2 AG876 virus infection of NOKs induce cellular proliferation, and inhibit spontaneous differentiation, in comparison to the uninfected cells when cells are grown without supplemental growth factors in monolayer culture. T1 EBV and T2 EBV also have a similar ability to induce epithelial-to-mesenchymal (EMT) transition and activate canonical and non-canonical NF-κB signaling in infected NOKs. In contrast to our recent results in EBV-infected lymphoblastoid cells (in which T2 EBV infection is much more lytic than T1 EBV infection), we find that NOKs infected with T1 and T2 EBV respond similarly to lytic inducing agents such as TPA treatment or differentiation. These results suggest that T1 and T2 EBV have similar phenotypes in infected epithelial cells, with both EBV types enhancing cellular proliferation and inhibiting differentiation when growth factors are limiting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deo R. Singh
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Scott E. Nelson
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Abigail S. Pawelski
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Juan A. Cantres-Velez
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Alisha S. Kansra
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Nicholas P. Pauly
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Jillian A. Bristol
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Mitchell Hayes
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Makoto Ohashi
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Alejandro Casco
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Denis Lee
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Stuart A. Fogarty
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Paul F. Lambert
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Eric C. Johannsen
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Shannon C. Kenney
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin- Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
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6
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The roles of DNA methylation on the promotor of the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) gene and the genome in patients with EBV-associated diseases. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 106:4413-4426. [PMID: 35763069 PMCID: PMC9259528 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-022-12029-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 06/11/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is an oncogenic virus that is closely associated with several malignant and lymphoproliferative diseases. Studies have shown that the typical characteristic of EBV-associated diseases is aberrant methylation of viral DNA and the host genome. EBV gene methylation helps EBV escape from immune monitoring and persist in host cells. EBV controls viral gene promoter methylation by hijacking host epigenetic machinery to regulate the expression of viral genes. EBV proteins also interact with host epigenetic regulatory factors to mediate the methylation of the host’s important tumour suppressor gene promoters, thereby participating in the occurrence of tumorigenesis. Since epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation, are reversible in nature, drugs that target DNA methylation can be developed for epigenetic therapy against EBV-associated tumours. Various methylation modes in the host and EBV genomes may also be of diagnostic and prognostic value. This review summarizes the regulatory roles of DNA methylation on the promotor of EBV gene and host genome in EBV-associated diseases, proposes the application prospect of DNA methylation in early clinical diagnosis and treatment, and provides insight into methylation-based strategies against EBV-associated diseases. Key points • Methylation of both the host and EBV genomes plays an important role in EBV-associateddiseases. • The functions of methylation of the host and EBV genomes in the occurrence and development of EBV-associated diseases are diverse. • Methylation may be a therapeutic target or biomarker in EBV-associated diseases.
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7
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Devoucoux M, Fort V, Khelifi G, Xu J, Alerasool N, Galloy M, Wong N, Bourriquen G, Fradet-Turcotte A, Taipale M, Hope K, Hussein SMI, Côté J. Oncogenic ZMYND11-MBTD1 fusion protein anchors the NuA4/TIP60 histone acetyltransferase complex to the coding region of active genes. Cell Rep 2022; 39:110947. [PMID: 35705031 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.110947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
A recurrent chromosomal translocation found in acute myeloid leukemia leads to an in-frame fusion of the transcription repressor ZMYND11 to MBTD1, a subunit of the NuA4/TIP60 histone acetyltransferase complex. To understand the abnormal molecular events that ZMYND11-MBTD1 expression can create, we perform a biochemical and functional characterization comparison to each individual fusion partner. ZMYND11-MBTD1 is stably incorporated into the endogenous NuA4/TIP60 complex, leading to its mislocalization on the body of genes normally bound by ZMYND11. This can be correlated to increased chromatin acetylation and altered gene transcription, most notably on the MYC oncogene, and alternative splicing. Importantly, ZMYND11-MBTD1 expression favors Myc-driven pluripotency during embryonic stem cell differentiation and self-renewal of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. Altogether, these results indicate that the ZMYND11-MBTD1 fusion functions primarily by mistargeting the NuA4/TIP60 complex to the body of genes, altering normal transcription of specific genes, likely driving oncogenesis in part through the Myc regulatory network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maëva Devoucoux
- St. Patrick Research Group in Basic Oncology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, Oncology Division of CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Center, Quebec City, QC G1R 3S3, Canada
| | - Victoire Fort
- St. Patrick Research Group in Basic Oncology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, Oncology Division of CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Center, Quebec City, QC G1R 3S3, Canada
| | - Gabriel Khelifi
- St. Patrick Research Group in Basic Oncology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, Oncology Division of CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Center, Quebec City, QC G1R 3S3, Canada
| | - Joshua Xu
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Nader Alerasool
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto ON, Canada
| | - Maxime Galloy
- St. Patrick Research Group in Basic Oncology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, Oncology Division of CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Center, Quebec City, QC G1R 3S3, Canada
| | - Nicholas Wong
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Gaëlle Bourriquen
- St. Patrick Research Group in Basic Oncology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, Oncology Division of CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Center, Quebec City, QC G1R 3S3, Canada
| | - Amelie Fradet-Turcotte
- St. Patrick Research Group in Basic Oncology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, Oncology Division of CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Center, Quebec City, QC G1R 3S3, Canada
| | - Mikko Taipale
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto ON, Canada
| | - Kristin Hope
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Samer M I Hussein
- St. Patrick Research Group in Basic Oncology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, Oncology Division of CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Center, Quebec City, QC G1R 3S3, Canada.
| | - Jacques Côté
- St. Patrick Research Group in Basic Oncology, Laval University Cancer Research Center, Oncology Division of CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Center, Quebec City, QC G1R 3S3, Canada.
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8
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Reduced IRF4 expression promotes lytic phenotype in Type 2 EBV-infected B cells. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010453. [PMID: 35472072 PMCID: PMC9041801 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans are infected with two types of EBV (Type 1 (T1) and Type 2 (T2)) that differ substantially in their EBNA2 and EBNA 3A/B/C latency proteins and have different phenotypes in B cells. T1 EBV transforms B cells more efficiently than T2 EBV in vitro, and T2 EBV-infected B cells are more lytic. We previously showed that both increased NFATc1/c2 activity, and an NFAT-binding motif within the BZLF1 immediate-early promoter variant (Zp-V3) contained in all T2 strains, contribute to lytic infection in T2 EBV-infected B cells. Here we compare cellular and viral gene expression in early-passage lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) infected with either T1 or T2 EBV strains. Using bulk RNA-seq, we show that T2 LCLs are readily distinguishable from T1 LCLs, with approximately 600 differentially expressed cellular genes. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) suggests that T2 LCLs have increased B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling, NFAT activation, and enhanced expression of epithelial-mesenchymal-transition-associated genes. T2 LCLs also have decreased RNA and protein expression of a cellular gene required for survival of T1 LCLs, IRF4. In addition to its essential role in plasma cell differentiation, IRF4 decreases BCR signaling. Knock-down of IRF4 in a T1 LCL (infected with the Zp-V3-containing Akata strain) induced lytic reactivation whereas over-expression of IRF4 in Burkitt lymphoma cells inhibited both NFATc1 and NFATc2 expression and lytic EBV reactivation. Single-cell RNA-seq confirmed that T2 LCLs have many more lytic cells compared to T1 LCLs and showed that lytically infected cells have both increased NFATc1, and decreased IRF4, compared to latently infected cells. These studies reveal numerous differences in cellular gene expression in B cells infected with T1 versus T2 EBV and suggest that decreased IRF4 contributes to both the latent and lytic phenotypes in cells with T2 EBV.
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9
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Rahman R, Gopinath D, Buajeeb W, Poomsawat S, Johnson NW. Potential Role of Epstein–Barr Virus in Oral Potentially Malignant Disorders and Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Scoping Review. Viruses 2022; 14:v14040801. [PMID: 35458531 PMCID: PMC9032208 DOI: 10.3390/v14040801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Though the oral cavity is anatomically proximate to the nasal cavity and acts as a key reservoir of EBV habitation and transmission, it is still unclear whether EBV plays a significant role in oral carcinogenesis. Many studies have detected EBV DNA in tissues and exfoliated cells from OSCC patients. However, very few studies have investigated the expression of functional EBV proteins implicated in its oncogenicity. The most studied are latent membrane protein 1 (LMP-1), a protein associated with the activation of signalling pathways; EBV determined nuclear antigen (EBNA)-1, a protein involved in the regulation of gene expression; and EBV-encoded small non-polyadenylated RNA (EBER)-2. LMP-1 is considered the major oncoprotein, and overexpression of LMP-1 observed in OSCC indicates that this molecule might play a significant role in oral carcinogenesis. Although numerous studies have detected EBV DNA and proteins from OSCC and oral potentially malignant disorders, heterogeneity in methodologies has led to discrepant results, hindering interpretation. Elucidating the exact functions of EBV and its proteins when expressed is vital in establishing the role of viruses in oral oncogenesis. This review summarises the current evidence on the potential role of EBV in oral oncogenesis and discusses the implications as well as recommendations for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rifat Rahman
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, School of Medicine and Dentistry, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia; (R.R.); (N.W.J.)
| | - Divya Gopinath
- Clinical Oral Health Sciences Division, School of Dentistry, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur 57000, Malaysia
- Correspondence:
| | - Waranun Buajeeb
- Department of Oral Medicine and Periodontology, Faculty of Dentistry, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
| | - Sopee Poomsawat
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, Faculty of Dentistry, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
| | - Newell W. Johnson
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, School of Medicine and Dentistry, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia; (R.R.); (N.W.J.)
- Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London, London WC2R 2LS, UK
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10
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Do Epstein–Barr Virus Mutations and Natural Genome Sequence Variations Contribute to Disease? Biomolecules 2021; 12:biom12010017. [PMID: 35053165 PMCID: PMC8774192 DOI: 10.3390/biom12010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Most of the world’s population is infected by the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), but the incidence of the diseases associated with EBV infection differs greatly in different parts of the world. Many factors may determine those differences, but variation in the virus genome is likely to be a contributing factor for some of the diseases. Here, we describe the main forms of EBV genome sequence variation, and the mechanisms by which variations in the virus genome are likely to contribute to disease. EBV genome deletions or polymorphisms can also provide useful markers for monitoring disease. If some EBV strains prove to be more pathogenic than others, this suggests the possible value of immunising people against infection by those pathogenic strains.
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11
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Zhang X, Schuhmachers P, Mourão A, Giansanti P, Murer A, Thumann S, Kuklik‐Roos C, Beer S, Hauck SM, Hammerschmidt W, Küppers R, Kuster B, Raab M, Strebhardt K, Sattler M, Münz C, Kempkes B. PLK1-dependent phosphorylation restrains EBNA2 activity and lymphomagenesis in EBV-infected mice. EMBO Rep 2021; 22:e53007. [PMID: 34605140 PMCID: PMC8647151 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202153007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
While Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) establishes a life-long latent infection in apparently healthy human immunocompetent hosts, immunodeficient individuals are at particular risk to develop lymphoproliferative B-cell malignancies caused by EBV. A key EBV protein is the transcription factor EBV nuclear antigen 2 (EBNA2), which initiates B-cell proliferation. Here, we combine biochemical, cellular, and in vivo experiments demonstrating that the mitotic polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1) binds to EBNA2, phosphorylates its transactivation domain, and thereby inhibits its biological activity. EBNA2 mutants that impair PLK1 binding or prevent EBNA2 phosphorylation are gain-of-function mutants. They exhibit enhanced transactivation capacities, accelerate the proliferation of infected B cells, and promote the development of monoclonal B-cell lymphomas in infected mice. Thus, PLK1 coordinates the activity of EBNA2 to attenuate the risk of tumor incidences in favor of the establishment of latency in the infected but healthy host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Zhang
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental HealthMünchenGermany
| | - Patrick Schuhmachers
- Viral ImmunbiologyInstitute of Experimental ImmunologyUniversity of ZürichZürichSwitzerland
| | - André Mourão
- Institute of Structural BiologyHelmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental HealthNeuherbergGermany
- Department of ChemistryBavarian NMR CenterTechnical University of MunichGarchingGermany
| | - Piero Giansanti
- Chair of Proteomics and BioanalyticsTechnical University of MunichFreisingGermany
| | - Anita Murer
- Viral ImmunbiologyInstitute of Experimental ImmunologyUniversity of ZürichZürichSwitzerland
| | - Sybille Thumann
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental HealthMünchenGermany
| | - Cornelia Kuklik‐Roos
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental HealthMünchenGermany
| | - Sophie Beer
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental HealthMünchenGermany
| | - Stefanie M Hauck
- Research Unit Protein Science and Metabolomics and Proteomics Core FacilityHelmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental HealthMünchenGermany
| | - Wolfgang Hammerschmidt
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental HealthMünchenGermany
| | - Ralf Küppers
- Institute of Cell Biology (Cancer Research)University Hospital EssenEssenGermany
| | - Bernhard Kuster
- Chair of Proteomics and BioanalyticsTechnical University of MunichFreisingGermany
- Bavarian Center for Biomolecular Mass SpectrometryTechnical University of MunichFreisingGermany
| | - Monika Raab
- Department of Gynecology and ObstetricsJohann Wolfgang Goethe UniversityFrankfurt am MainGermany
| | - Klaus Strebhardt
- Department of Gynecology and ObstetricsJohann Wolfgang Goethe UniversityFrankfurt am MainGermany
| | - Michael Sattler
- Institute of Structural BiologyHelmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental HealthNeuherbergGermany
- Department of ChemistryBavarian NMR CenterTechnical University of MunichGarchingGermany
| | - Christian Münz
- Viral ImmunbiologyInstitute of Experimental ImmunologyUniversity of ZürichZürichSwitzerland
| | - Bettina Kempkes
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum MünchenGerman Research Center for Environmental HealthMünchenGermany
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Abstract
Viral infection is an indisputable causal factor for nearly 17% of all human cancers. However, the diversity and complexity of oncogenic mechanisms raises new questions as to the mechanistic role of viruses in cancer. Classical viral oncogenes have been identified for all tumor-associated viruses. These oncogenes can have multiple oncogenic activities that may or may not be utilized in a particular tumor cell. In addition, stochastic events, like viral mutation and integration, as well as heritable host susceptibilities and immune deficiencies are also implicated in tumorigenesis. A more contemporary view of tumor biology highlights the importance of evolutionary forces that select for phenotypes better adapted to a complex and changing environment. Given the challenges of prioritizing singular mechanistic causes, it may be necessary to integrate concepts from evolutionary theory and systems biology to better understand viral cancer-driving forces. Here, we propose that viral infection provides a biological “entropy” that increases genetic variation and phenotypic plasticity, accelerating the main driving forces of cancer cell evolution. Viruses can also influence the evolutionary selection criteria by altering the tumor microenvironment and immune signaling. Utilizing concepts from cancer cell evolution, population genetics, thermodynamics, and systems biology may provide new perspectives on viral oncogenesis and identify novel therapeutic strategies for treating viruses and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Italo Tempera
- Program in Gene Expression and Regulation, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Paul M Lieberman
- Program in Gene Expression and Regulation, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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Manet E, Polvèche H, Mure F, Mrozek-Gorska P, Roisné-Hamelin F, Hammerschmidt W, Auboeuf D, Gruffat H. Modulation of alternative splicing during early infection of human primary B lymphocytes with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV): a novel function for the viral EBNA-LP protein. Nucleic Acids Res 2021; 49:10657-10676. [PMID: 34530456 PMCID: PMC8501971 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkab787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a human herpesvirus associated with human cancers worldwide. Ex vivo, the virus efficiently infects resting human B lymphocytes and induces their continuous proliferation. This process is accompanied by a global reprogramming of cellular gene transcription. However, very little is known on the impact of EBV infection on the regulation of alternative splicing, a pivotal mechanism that plays an essential role in cell fate determination and is often deregulated in cancer. In this study, we have developed a systematic time-resolved analysis of cellular mRNA splice variant expression during EBV infection of resting B lymphocytes. Our results reveal that major modifications of alternative splice variant expression appear as early as day 1 post-infection and suggest that splicing regulation provides—besides transcription—an additional mechanism of gene expression regulation at the onset of B cell activation and proliferation. We also report a role for the viral proteins, EBNA2 and EBNA-LP, in the modulation of specific alternative splicing events and reveal a previously unknown function for EBNA-LP—together with the RBM4 splicing factor—in the alternative splicing regulation of two important modulators of cell proliferation and apoptosis respectively, NUMB and BCL-X.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyne Manet
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, RNA Expression in Viruses and Eukaryotes Group, Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INSERM U1111, CNRS UMR5308, ENS Lyon, Lyon F-69007, France
| | | | - Fabrice Mure
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, RNA Expression in Viruses and Eukaryotes Group, Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INSERM U1111, CNRS UMR5308, ENS Lyon, Lyon F-69007, France
| | - Paulina Mrozek-Gorska
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Florian Roisné-Hamelin
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, RNA Expression in Viruses and Eukaryotes Group, Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INSERM U1111, CNRS UMR5308, ENS Lyon, Lyon F-69007, France
| | - Wolfgang Hammerschmidt
- Research Unit Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health and German Center for Infection Research, D-81377 Munich, Germany
| | | | - Henri Gruffat
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, RNA Expression in Viruses and Eukaryotes Group, Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, INSERM U1111, CNRS UMR5308, ENS Lyon, Lyon F-69007, France
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EBNA2 driven enhancer switching at the CIITA-DEXI locus suppresses HLA class II gene expression during EBV infection of B-lymphocytes. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009834. [PMID: 34352044 PMCID: PMC8370649 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses suppress immune recognition through diverse mechanisms. Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) establishes latent infection in memory B-lymphocytes and B-cell malignancies where it impacts B-cell immune function. We show here that EBV primary infection of naïve B-cells results in a robust down-regulation of HLA genes. We found that the viral encoded transcriptional regulatory factor EBNA2 bound to multiple regulatory regions in the HLA locus. Conditional expression of EBNA2 correlated with the down regulation of HLA class II transcription. EBNA2 down-regulation of HLA transcription was found to be dependent on CIITA, the major transcriptional activator of HLA class II gene transcription. We identified a major EBNA2 binding site downstream of the CIITA gene and upstream of DEXI, a dexamethasone inducible gene that is oriented head-to-head with CIITA gene transcripts. CRISPR/Cas9 deletion of the EBNA2 site upstream of DEXI attenuated CIITA transcriptional repression. EBNA2 caused an increase in DEXI transcription and a graded change in histone modifications with activation mark H3K27ac near the DEXI locus, and a loss of activation marks at the CIITA locus. A prominent CTCF binding site between CIITA and DEXI enhancers was mutated and further diminished the effects of EBNA2 on CIITA. Analysis of HiC data indicate that DEXI and CIITA enhancers are situated in different chromosome topological associated domains (TADs). These findings suggest that EBNA2 down regulates HLA-II genes through the down regulation of CIITA, and that this down regulation is an indirect consequence of EBNA2 enhancer formation at a neighboring TAD. We propose that enhancer competition between these neighboring chromosome domains represents a novel mechanism for gene regulation demonstrated by EBNA2.
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Genetic Patterns Found in the Nuclear Localization Signals (NLSs) Associated with EBV-1 and EBV-2 Provide New Insights into Their Contribution to Different Cell-Type Specificities. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13112569. [PMID: 34073836 PMCID: PMC8197229 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13112569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) has been implicated in several human neoplastic diseases. The EBV-1 can transform B cells into LCL more efficiently than EBV-2, and EBV-2 preferentially infects T-cell lymphocytes. The EBNA3A oncoprotein has an essential role in B-cell transformation. The six peptide motifs called nuclear localization signals (NLSs) from EBNA3A ensure nucleocytoplasmic protein trafficking. Multiple NLSs have been suggested to enhance EBNA3 function or different specificities to different cell types; however, a comprehensive assessment of their genetic variability has not been addressed. Our objective was to study the NLSs’ variability and their relationship with EBV types. Based on a comprehensive analysis of over a thousand EBNA3A sequences from different clinical manifestations and geographic locations, we found that EBNA3A from EBV-2 has two of the six NLSs altered, and genetic patterns in the NLSs are associated with EBV-1 and EBV-2. Abstract The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is a globally dispersed pathogen involved in several human cancers of B-cell and non-B-cell origin. EBV has been classified into EBV-1 and EBV-2, which have differences in their transformative ability. EBV-1 can transform B-cells into LCL more efficiently than EBV-2, and EBV-2 preferentially infects T-cell lymphocytes. The EBNA3A oncoprotein is a transcriptional regulator of virus and host cell genes, and is required in order to transform B-cells. EBNA3A has six peptide motifs called nuclear localization signals (NLSs) that ensure nucleocytoplasmic protein trafficking. The presence of multiple NLSs has been suggested to enhance EBNA3 function or different specificities in different cell types. However, studies about the NLS variability associated with EBV types are scarce. Based on a systematic sequence analysis considering more than a thousand EBNA3A sequences of EBV from different human clinical manifestations and geographic locations, we found differences in NLSs’ nucleotide structures among EBV types. Compared with the EBNA3A EBV-1, EBNA3A EBV-2 has two of the six NLSs altered, and these mutations were possibly acquired by recombination. These genetic patterns in the NLSs associated with EBV-1 and EBV-2 provide new information about the traits of EBNA3A in EBV biology.
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16
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Romero-Masters JC, Huebner SM, Ohashi M, Bristol JA, Benner BE, Barlow EA, Turk GL, Nelson SE, Baiu DC, Van Sciver N, Ranheim EA, Gumperz J, Sherer NM, Farrell PJ, Johannsen EC, Kenney SC. B cells infected with Type 2 Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) have increased NFATc1/NFATc2 activity and enhanced lytic gene expression in comparison to Type 1 EBV infection. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008365. [PMID: 32059024 PMCID: PMC7046292 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans are infected with two distinct strains (Type 1 (T1) and Type 2 (T2)) of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) that differ substantially in their EBNA2 and EBNA 3A/B/C latency genes and the ability to transform B cells in vitro. While most T1 EBV strains contain the "prototype" form of the BZLF1 immediate-early promoter ("Zp-P"), all T2 strains contain the "Zp-V3" variant, which contains an NFAT binding motif and is activated much more strongly by B-cell receptor signalling. Whether B cells infected with T2 EBV are more lytic than cells infected with T1 EBV is unknown. Here we show that B cells infected with T2 EBV strains (AG876 and BL5) have much more lytic protein expression compared to B cells infected with T1 EBV strains (M81, Akata, and Mutu) in both a cord blood-humanized (CBH) mouse model and EBV-transformed lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs). Although T2 LCLs grow more slowly than T1 LCLs, both EBV types induce B-cell lymphomas in CBH mice. T1 EBV strains (M81 and Akata) containing Zp-V3 are less lytic than T2 EBV strains, suggesting that Zp-V3 is not sufficient to confer a lytic phenotype. Instead, we find that T2 LCLs express much higher levels of activated NFATc1 and NFATc2, and that cyclosporine (an NFAT inhibitor) and knockdown of NFATc2 attenuate constitutive lytic infection in T2 LCLs. Both NFATc1 and NFATc2 induce lytic EBV gene expression when combined with activated CAMKIV (which is activated by calcium signaling and activates MEF2D) in Burkitt Akata cells. Together, these results suggest that B cells infected with T2 EBV are more lytic due to increased activity of the cellular NFATc1/c2 transcription factors in addition to the universal presence of the Zp-V3 form of BZLF1 promoter.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C. Romero-Masters
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Shane M. Huebner
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Makoto Ohashi
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Jillian A. Bristol
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Bayleigh E. Benner
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth A. Barlow
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Gail L. Turk
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Scott E. Nelson
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Dana C. Baiu
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Nicholas Van Sciver
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Erik A. Ranheim
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Jenny Gumperz
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Nathan M. Sherer
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Paul J. Farrell
- Section of Virology, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, Norfolk Place, London, United Kingdom
| | - Eric C. Johannsen
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Shannon C. Kenney
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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