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Solleiro-Villavicencio H, Méndez-García LA, Ocampo-Aguilera NA, Baltazar-Pérez I, Arreola-Miranda JA, Aguayo-Guerrero JA, Alfaro-Cruz A, González-Chávez A, Fonseca-Sánchez MA, Fragoso JM, Escobedo G. Decreased Hepatic and Serum Levels of IL-10 Concur with Increased Lobular Inflammation in Morbidly Obese Patients. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2024; 60:862. [PMID: 38929479 PMCID: PMC11205754 DOI: 10.3390/medicina60060862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is associated with obesity and ranges from simple steatosis to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Accumulating evidence in animal models suggests that loss of interleukin-10 (IL-10) anti-inflammatory actions might contribute to lobular inflammation, considered one of the first steps toward NASH development. However, the role of IL-10 in lobular inflammation remains poorly explored in humans. We examined mRNA and protein levels of IL-10 in liver biopsies and serum samples from morbidly obese patients, investigating the relationship between IL-10 and lobular inflammation degree. Materials and Methods: We prospectively enrolled morbidly obese patients of both sexes, assessing the lobular inflammation grade by the Brunt scoring system to categorize participants into mild (n = 7), moderate (n = 19), or severe (n = 13) lobular inflammation groups. We quantified the hepatic mRNA expression of IL-10 by quantitative polymerase chain reaction and protein IL-10 levels in liver and serum samples by Luminex Assay. We estimated statistical differences by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey's multiple comparison test. Results: The hepatic expression of IL-10 significantly diminished in patients with severe lobular inflammation compared with the moderate lobular inflammation group (p = 0.01). The hepatic IL-10 protein levels decreased in patients with moderate or severe lobular inflammation compared with the mild lobular inflammation group (p = 0.008 and p = 0.0008, respectively). In circulation, IL-10 also significantly decreased in subjects with moderate or severe lobular inflammation compared with the mild lobular inflammation group (p = 0.005 and p < 0.0001, respectively). Conclusions: In liver biopsies and serum samples of morbidly obese patients, the protein levels of IL-10 progressively decrease as lobular inflammation increases, supporting the hypothesis that lobular inflammation develops because of the loss of the IL-10-mediated anti-inflammatory counterbalance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lucía Angélica Méndez-García
- Laboratory of Immunometabolism, Research Division, General Hospital of Mexico “Dr. Eduardo Liceaga”, Mexico City 06726, Mexico; (L.A.M.-G.); (N.A.O.-A.); (I.B.-P.); (J.A.A.-M.); (J.A.A.-G.)
| | - Nydia A. Ocampo-Aguilera
- Laboratory of Immunometabolism, Research Division, General Hospital of Mexico “Dr. Eduardo Liceaga”, Mexico City 06726, Mexico; (L.A.M.-G.); (N.A.O.-A.); (I.B.-P.); (J.A.A.-M.); (J.A.A.-G.)
| | - Itzel Baltazar-Pérez
- Laboratory of Immunometabolism, Research Division, General Hospital of Mexico “Dr. Eduardo Liceaga”, Mexico City 06726, Mexico; (L.A.M.-G.); (N.A.O.-A.); (I.B.-P.); (J.A.A.-M.); (J.A.A.-G.)
| | - José A. Arreola-Miranda
- Laboratory of Immunometabolism, Research Division, General Hospital of Mexico “Dr. Eduardo Liceaga”, Mexico City 06726, Mexico; (L.A.M.-G.); (N.A.O.-A.); (I.B.-P.); (J.A.A.-M.); (J.A.A.-G.)
| | - José A. Aguayo-Guerrero
- Laboratory of Immunometabolism, Research Division, General Hospital of Mexico “Dr. Eduardo Liceaga”, Mexico City 06726, Mexico; (L.A.M.-G.); (N.A.O.-A.); (I.B.-P.); (J.A.A.-M.); (J.A.A.-G.)
| | - Ana Alfaro-Cruz
- Pathological Anatomy Department, General Hospital of Mexico “Dr. Eduardo Liceaga”, Mexico City 06726, Mexico;
| | - Antonio González-Chávez
- Clínica de Atención Integral para Pacientes con Diabetes y Obesidad (CAIDO), General Hospital of Mexico “Dr. Eduardo Liceaga”, Mexico City 06726, Mexico;
| | | | - José Manuel Fragoso
- Department of Molecular Biology, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chávez, Juan Badiano 1, Sección XVI, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico;
| | - Galileo Escobedo
- Laboratory of Immunometabolism, Research Division, General Hospital of Mexico “Dr. Eduardo Liceaga”, Mexico City 06726, Mexico; (L.A.M.-G.); (N.A.O.-A.); (I.B.-P.); (J.A.A.-M.); (J.A.A.-G.)
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Stijlemans B, De Baetselier P, Van Molle I, Lecordier L, Hendrickx E, Romão E, Vincke C, Baetens W, Schoonooghe S, Hassanzadeh-Ghassabeh G, Korf H, Wallays M, Pinto Torres JE, Perez-Morga D, Brys L, Campetella O, Leguizamón MS, Claes M, Hendrickx S, Mabille D, Caljon G, Remaut H, Roelants K, Magez S, Van Ginderachter JA, De Trez C. Q586B2 is a crucial virulence factor during the early stages of Trypanosoma brucei infection that is conserved amongst trypanosomatids. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1779. [PMID: 38413606 PMCID: PMC10899635 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46067-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness, caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, is characterized by the manipulation of the host's immune response to ensure parasite invasion and persistence. Uncovering key molecules that support parasite establishment is a prerequisite to interfere with this process. We identified Q586B2 as a T. brucei protein that induces IL-10 in myeloid cells, which promotes parasite infection invasiveness. Q586B2 is expressed during all T. brucei life stages and is conserved in all Trypanosomatidae. Deleting the Q586B2-encoding Tb927.6.4140 gene in T. brucei results in a decreased peak parasitemia and prolonged survival, without affecting parasite fitness in vitro, yet promoting short stumpy differentiation in vivo. Accordingly, neutralization of Q586B2 with newly generated nanobodies could hamper myeloid-derived IL-10 production and reduce parasitemia. In addition, immunization with Q586B2 delays mortality upon a challenge with various trypanosomes, including Trypanosoma cruzi. Collectively, we uncovered a conserved protein playing an important regulatory role in Trypanosomatid infection establishment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Stijlemans
- Brussels Center for Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Patrick De Baetselier
- Brussels Center for Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Inge Van Molle
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
- VIB-VUB Center for Structural Biology, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Laurence Lecordier
- Biology of Membrane Transport Laboratory, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Erika Hendrickx
- Laboratory of Molecular Parasitology, IBMM, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Ema Romão
- VIB Nanobody Core, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Cécile Vincke
- Brussels Center for Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Wendy Baetens
- Brussels Center for Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
| | | | | | - Hannelie Korf
- Laboratory of Hepatology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Marie Wallays
- Laboratory of Hepatology, Department of Chronic Diseases and Metabolism, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Joar E Pinto Torres
- Brussels Center for Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - David Perez-Morga
- Laboratory of Molecular Parasitology, IBMM, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Gosselies, Belgium
- Center for Microscopy and Molecular Imaging (CMMI), Université Libre de Bruxelles, Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Lea Brys
- Brussels Center for Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Oscar Campetella
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas, Universidad Nacional de San Martín-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María S Leguizamón
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas, Universidad Nacional de San Martín-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mathieu Claes
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology, and Hygiene (LMPH), Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Sarah Hendrickx
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology, and Hygiene (LMPH), Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Dorien Mabille
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology, and Hygiene (LMPH), Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Guy Caljon
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology, and Hygiene (LMPH), Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Han Remaut
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
- VIB-VUB Center for Structural Biology, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kim Roelants
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Stefan Magez
- Brussels Center for Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
- Laboratory of Biomedical Research, Ghent University Global Campus, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Jo A Van Ginderachter
- Brussels Center for Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Carl De Trez
- Brussels Center for Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
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Abstract
African trypanosomes are bloodstream protozoan parasites that infect mammals including humans, where they cause sleeping sickness. Long-lasting infection is required to favor parasite transmission between hosts. Therefore, trypanosomes have developed strategies to continuously escape innate and adaptive responses of the immune system, while also preventing premature death of the host. The pathology linked to infection mainly results from inflammation and includes anemia and brain dysfunction in addition to loss of specificity and memory of the antibody response. The serum of humans contains an efficient trypanolytic factor, the membrane pore-forming protein apolipoprotein L1 (APOL1). In the two human-infective trypanosomes, specific parasite resistance factors inhibit APOL1 activity. In turn, many African individuals express APOL1 variants that counteract these resistance factors, enabling them to avoid sleeping sickness. However, these variants are associated with chronic kidney disease, particularly in the context of virus-induced inflammation such as coronavirus disease 2019. Vaccination perspectives are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etienne Pays
- Laboratory of Molecular Parasitology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Gosselies, Belgium;
| | - Magdalena Radwanska
- Laboratory for Biomedical Research, Ghent University Global Campus, Incheon, South Korea.,Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium;
| | - Stefan Magez
- Laboratory for Biomedical Research, Ghent University Global Campus, Incheon, South Korea.,Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium; .,Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Lucchinetti E, Lou PH, Holtzhauer G, Noureddine N, Wawrzyniak P, Hartling I, Lee M, Strachan E, Clemente-Casares X, Tsai S, Rogler G, Krämer SD, Hersberger M, Zaugg M. Novel lipid emulsion for total parenteral nutrition based on 18-carbon n-3 fatty acids elicits a superior immunometabolic phenotype in a murine model compared with standard lipid emulsions. Am J Clin Nutr 2022; 116:1805-1819. [PMID: 36166844 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/nqac272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND While lipid emulsions in modern formulations for total parenteral nutrition (TPN) provide essential fatty acids and dense calories, they also promote inflammation and immunometabolic disruptions. OBJECTIVES We aimed to develop a novel lipid emulsion for TPN use with superior immunometabolic actions compared with available standard lipid emulsions. METHODS A novel lipid emulsion [Vegaven (VV)] containing 30% of 18-carbon n-3 fatty acids (α-linolenic acid and stearidonic acid) was developed for TPN (VV-TPN) and compared with TPN containing soybean oil-based lipid emulsion (IL-TPN) and fish-oil-based lipid emulsion (OV-TPN). In vivo studies were performed in instrumented male C57BL/6 mice subjected to 7-d TPN prior to analysis of cytokines, indices of whole-body and hepatic glucose metabolism, immune cells, lipid mediators, and mucosal bowel microbiome. RESULTS IL-6 to IL-10 ratios were significantly lower in liver and skeletal muscle of VV-TPN mice when compared with IL-TPN or OV-TPN mice. VV-TPN and OV-TPN each increased hepatic insulin receptor abundance and resulted in similar HOMA-IR values, whereas only VV-TPN increased hepatic insulin receptor substrate 2 and maintained normal hepatic glycogen content, effects that were IL-10-dependent and mediated by glucokinase activation. The percentages of IFN-γ- and IL-17-expressing CD4+ T cells were increased in livers of VV-TPN mice, and liver macrophages exhibited primed phenotypes when compared with IL-TPN. This immunomodulation was associated with successful elimination of the microinvasive bacterium Akkermansia muciniphila from the bowel mucosa by VV-TPN as opposed to standard lipid emulsions. Assay of hepatic lipid mediators revealed a distinct profile with VV-TPN, including increases in 9(S)-hydroxy-octadecatrienoic acid. When co-administered with IL-TPN, hydroxy-octadecatrienoic acids mimicked the VV-TPN immunometabolic phenotype. CONCLUSIONS We here report the unique anti-inflammatory, insulin-sensitizing, and immunity-enhancing properties of a newly developed lipid emulsion designed for TPN use based on 18-carbon n-3 fatty acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliana Lucchinetti
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine and Cardiovascular Research Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Phing-How Lou
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | | | - Nazek Noureddine
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Children's Research Center, University Children's Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Paulina Wawrzyniak
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Children's Research Center, University Children's Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ivan Hartling
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Children's Research Center, University Children's Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Megan Lee
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Erin Strachan
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | | | - Sue Tsai
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Gerhard Rogler
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stefanie D Krämer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin Hersberger
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Children's Research Center, University Children's Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Zaugg
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine and Cardiovascular Research Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
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5
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Stijlemans B, Schoovaerts M, De Baetselier P, Magez S, De Trez C. The Role of MIF and IL-10 as Molecular Yin-Yang in the Modulation of the Host Immune Microenvironment During Infections: African Trypanosome Infections as a Paradigm. Front Immunol 2022; 13:865395. [PMID: 35464430 PMCID: PMC9022210 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.865395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
African trypanosomes are extracellular flagellated unicellular protozoan parasites transmitted by tsetse flies and causing Sleeping Sickness disease in humans and Nagana disease in cattle and other livestock. These diseases are usually characterized by the development of a fatal chronic inflammatory disease if left untreated. During African trypanosome infection and many other infectious diseases, the immune response is mediating a see-saw balance between effective/protective immunity and excessive infection-induced inflammation that can cause collateral tissue damage. African trypanosomes are known to trigger a strong type I pro-inflammatory response, which contributes to peak parasitaemia control, but this can culminate into the development of immunopathologies, such as anaemia and liver injury, if not tightly controlled. In this context, the macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) and the interleukin-10 (IL-10) cytokines may operate as a molecular “Yin-Yang” in the modulation of the host immune microenvironment during African trypanosome infection, and possibly other infectious diseases. MIF is a pleiotropic pro-inflammatory cytokine and critical upstream mediator of immune and inflammatory responses, associated with exaggerated inflammation and immunopathology. For example, it plays a crucial role in the pro-inflammatory response against African trypanosomes and other pathogens, thereby promoting the development of immunopathologies. On the other hand, IL-10 is an anti-inflammatory cytokine, acting as a master regulator of inflammation during both African trypanosomiasis and other diseases. IL-10 is crucial to counteract the strong MIF-induced pro-inflammatory response, leading to pathology control. Hence, novel strategies capable of blocking MIF and/or promoting IL-10 receptor signaling pathways, could potentially be used as therapy to counteract immunopathology development during African trypanosome infection, as well as during other infectious conditions. Together, this review aims at summarizing the current knowledge on the opposite immunopathological molecular “Yin-Yang” switch roles of MIF and IL-10 in the modulation of the host immune microenvironment during infection, and more particularly during African trypanosomiasis as a paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Stijlemans
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium.,Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie (VIB) Centre for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Maxime Schoovaerts
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Patrick De Baetselier
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium.,Myeloid Cell Immunology Laboratory, Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie (VIB) Centre for Inflammation Research, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Stefan Magez
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium.,Laboratory of Biomedical Research, Ghent University Global Campus, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Carl De Trez
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
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E Owumi S, K Olusola J, O Arunsi U, K Oyelere A. Chlorogenic acid abates oxido-inflammatory and apoptotic responses in the liver and kidney of Tamoxifen-treated rats. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2021; 10:345-353. [PMID: 33884184 PMCID: PMC8045591 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfab002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant-derived phenolics are utilized as chemopreventive agents to abate adverse toxic responses associated with drug-induced damages. Tamoxifen (TAM)-a chemotherapeutic agent-is used in managing all stages of hormone-dependent breast cancer. Notwithstanding TAM's clinical side effect-including hepatic toxicity-its use is commonplace. The present study investigates the effect of Chlorogenic acid (CGA: 25 and 50 mg kg-1; per os (p.o)) reported to exhibit various beneficial properties, including antioxidative effect against TAM (50 mg/kg; p.o.)-induced hepatorenal toxicities in rats treated as follows: Control, CGA, or TAM alone, and rats co-treated with CGA and TAM for 2 weeks. Biomarkers of hepatorenal function, oxido-inflammatory stress, and hepatorenal histopathology were performed. We observed that TAM alone decreased relative organ weights (ROW), marginally impacted rat's survivability, and significantly (P < 0.05) increased hepatorenal toxicities and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS). TAM decreased (P < 0.05) antioxidant, anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10), besides increase in (P < 0.05) lipid peroxidation (LPO), pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α), nitric oxide (NO), xanthine oxidase (XO), myeloperoxidase (MPO), and apoptotic caspases (Casp-3 and -9) levels. These biochemical alterations were accompanied by morphological lesions in experimental rats' liver and kidney. Conversely, that CGA dose-dependently relieved TAM-mediated toxic responses, restored antioxidants capacities, reduced oxidative stress, pro-inflammatory cytokines levels, and Casp-3 and -9 activities in experimental rats. Furthermore, CGA protected against lesions observed in the liver and kidney of rats treated with TAM alone. Overall, CGA blocked TAM-mediated hepatorenal injuries associated with pro-oxidative, inflammatory, and apoptotic mechanisms. CGA may serve as a chemoprotective agent boosting patients prognosis undergoing TAM chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solomon E Owumi
- Cancer Research and Molecular Biology Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200004, Nigeria
| | - Joseph K Olusola
- Cancer Research and Molecular Biology Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200004, Nigeria
| | - Uche O Arunsi
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Biotechnology, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Adegboyega K Oyelere
- School of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0400, USA
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