1
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Muir A, Paudyal B, Schmidt S, Sedaghat-Rostami E, Chakravarti S, Villanueva-Hernández S, Moffat K, Polo N, Angelopoulos N, Schmidt A, Tenbusch M, Freimanis G, Gerner W, Richard AC, Tchilian E. Single-cell analysis reveals lasting immunological consequences of influenza infection and respiratory immunization in the pig lung. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1011910. [PMID: 39024231 PMCID: PMC11257366 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024] Open
Abstract
The pig is a natural host for influenza viruses and integrally involved in virus evolution through interspecies transmissions between humans and swine. Swine have many physiological, anatomical, and immunological similarities to humans, and are an excellent model for human influenza. Here, we employed single cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) and flow cytometry to characterize the major leukocyte subsets in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), twenty-one days after H1N1pdm09 infection or respiratory immunization with an adenoviral vector vaccine expressing hemagglutinin and nucleoprotein with or without IL-1β. Mapping scRNA-seq clusters from BAL onto those previously described in peripheral blood facilitated annotation and highlighted differences between tissue resident and circulating immune cells. ScRNA-seq data and functional assays revealed lasting impacts of immune challenge on BAL populations. First, mucosal administration of IL-1β reduced the number of functionally active Treg cells. Second, influenza infection upregulated IFI6 in BAL cells and decreased their susceptibility to virus replication in vitro. Our data provide a reference map of porcine BAL cells and reveal lasting immunological consequences of influenza infection and respiratory immunization in a highly relevant large animal model for respiratory virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Muir
- Immunology Programme, The Babraham Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Katy Moffat
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
| | - Noemi Polo
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
| | | | - Anna Schmidt
- Virologisches Institut-Klinische und Molekulare Virologie, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- FAU Profilzentrum Immunmedizin (FAU I-MED), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Matthias Tenbusch
- Virologisches Institut-Klinische und Molekulare Virologie, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- FAU Profilzentrum Immunmedizin (FAU I-MED), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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2
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Van Reeth K, Parys A, Gracia JCM, Trus I, Chiers K, Meade P, Liu S, Palese P, Krammer F, Vandoorn E. Sequential vaccinations with divergent H1N1 influenza virus strains induce multi-H1 clade neutralizing antibodies in swine. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7745. [PMID: 38008801 PMCID: PMC10679120 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43339-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccines that protect against any H1N1 influenza A virus strain would be advantageous for use in pigs and humans. Here, we try to induce a pan-H1N1 antibody response in pigs by sequential vaccination with antigenically divergent H1N1 strains. Adjuvanted whole inactivated vaccines are given intramuscularly in various two- and three-dose regimens. Three doses of heterologous monovalent H1N1 vaccine result in seroprotective neutralizing antibodies against 71% of a diverse panel of human and swine H1 strains, detectable antibodies against 88% of strains, and sterile cross-clade immunity against two heterologous challenge strains. This strategy outperforms any two-dose regimen and is as good or better than giving three doses of matched trivalent vaccine. Neutralizing antibodies are H1-specific, and the second heterologous booster enhances reactivity with conserved epitopes in the HA head. We show that even the most traditional influenza vaccines can offer surprisingly broad protection if they are administered in an alternative way.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristien Van Reeth
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium.
| | - Anna Parys
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | | | - Ivan Trus
- Dioscuri Centre for RNA-Protein Interactions in Human Health and Disease, International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Koen Chiers
- Laboratory of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - Philip Meade
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Center for Vaccine Research and Pandemic Preparedness (C-VARPP), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sean Liu
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Peter Palese
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Florian Krammer
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Center for Vaccine Research and Pandemic Preparedness (C-VARPP), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Pathology, Molecular and Cell Based Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Elien Vandoorn
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
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3
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Noble A, Paudyal B, Schwartz JC, Mwangi W, Munir D, Tchilian E, Hammond JA, Graham SP. Distinct effector functions mediated by Fc regions of bovine IgG subclasses and their interaction with Fc gamma receptors. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1286903. [PMID: 38077405 PMCID: PMC10702552 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1286903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Cattle possess three IgG subclasses. However, the key immune functions, including complement and NK cell activation, and enhancement of phagocytosis, are not fully described for bovine IgG1, 2 and 3. We produced chimeric monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) consisting of a defined variable region linked to the constant regions of bovine IgG1, 2 and 3, and expressed His-tagged soluble recombinant bovine Fc gamma receptors (FcγRs) IA (CD64), IIA (CD32A), III (CD16) and Fcγ2R. Functional assays using bovinized mAbs were developed. IgG1 and IgG3, but not IgG2, activated complement-dependent cytotoxicity. Only IgG1 could activate cattle NK cells to mobilize CD107a after antigen crosslinking, a surrogate assay for antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity. Both IgG1 and IgG2 could trigger monocyte-derived macrophages to phagocytose fluorescently labelled antigen-expressing target cells. IgG3 induced only weak antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis (ADCP). By contrast, monocytes only exhibited strong ADCP when triggered by IgG2. IgG1 bound most strongly to recombinant FcγRs IA, IIA and III, with weaker binding by IgG3 and none by IgG2, which bound exclusively to Fcγ2R. Immune complexes containing IgG1, 2 and 3 bound differentially to leukocyte subsets, with IgG2 binding strongly to neutrophils and monocytes and all subclasses binding platelets. Differential expression of the FcγRs on leukocyte subsets was demonstrated by surface staining and/or RT-qPCR of sorted cells, e.g., Fcγ2R mRNA was expressed in monocytes/macrophages, neutrophils, and platelets, potentially explaining their strong interactions with IgG2, and FcγRIII was expressed on NK cells, presumably mediating IgG1-dependent NK cell activation. These data reveal differences in bovine IgG subclass functionality, which do not correspond to those described in humans, mice or pigs, which is relevant to the study of these IgG subclasses in vaccine and therapeutic antibody development.
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4
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McNee A, Vanover D, Rijal P, Paudyal B, Lean FZX, MacLoughlin R, Núñez A, Townsend A, Santangelo PJ, Tchilian E. A direct contact pig influenza challenge model for assessing protective efficacy of monoclonal antibodies. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1229051. [PMID: 37965320 PMCID: PMC10641767 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1229051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) can be used to complement immunization for the therapy of influenza virus infection. We have established the pig, a natural large animal host for influenza A, with many physiological, immunological, and anatomical similarities to humans, as an appropriate model for testing mAbs. We have evaluated the protective efficacy of the strongly neutralizing human anti-hemagglutinin mAb, 2-12C in the pig influenza model. Intravenous administration of recombinant 2-12C reduced virus load and lung pathology, however, it did not prevent virus nasal shedding and, consequently, transmission. This may be because the pigs were directly infected intranasally with a high dose of the H1N1pdm09 virus. To address this, we developed a contact challenge model in which the animals were given 2-12C and one day later co-housed with donor pigs previously infected intra-nasally with H1N1pdm09. 2-12C pre-treatment completely prevented infection. We also administered a lower dose of 2-12C by aerosol to the respiratory tract, but this did not prevent shedding in the direct challenge model, although it abolished lung infection. We propose that the direct contact challenge model of pig influenza may be useful for evaluating candidate mAbs and emerging delivery platforms prior to clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam McNee
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
| | - Daryll Vanover
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Pramila Rijal
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Basudev Paudyal
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
| | - Fabian Z. X. Lean
- Department of Pathology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Ronan MacLoughlin
- Research and Development, Science and Emerging Technologies, Aerogen Ltd, Galway, Ireland
| | - Alejandro Núñez
- Department of Pathology, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Alain Townsend
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Philip J. Santangelo
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Elma Tchilian
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
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5
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Fonseca FN, Haach V, Bellaver FV, Bombassaro G, Gava D, da Silva LP, Baron LF, Simonelly M, Carvalho WA, Schaefer R, Bastos AP. Immunological profile of mice immunized with a polyvalent virosome-based influenza vaccine. Virol J 2023; 20:187. [PMID: 37605141 PMCID: PMC10463652 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-023-02158-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Influenza A virus (IAV) causes respiratory disease in pigs and is a major concern for public health. Vaccination of pigs is the most successful measure to mitigate the impact of the disease in the herds. Influenza-based virosome is an effective immunomodulating carrier that replicates the natural antigen presentation pathway and has tolerability profile due to their purity and biocompatibility. METHODS This study aimed to develop a polyvalent virosome influenza vaccine containing the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase proteins derived from the swine IAVs (swIAVs) H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2 subtypes, and to investigate its effectiveness in mice as a potential vaccine for swine. Mice were immunized with two vaccine doses (1 and 15 days), intramuscularly and intranasally. At 21 days and eight months later after the second vaccine dose, mice were euthanized. The humoral and cellular immune responses in mice vaccinated intranasally or intramuscularly with a polyvalent influenza virosomal vaccine were investigated. RESULTS Only intramuscular vaccination induced high hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titers. Seroconversion and seroprotection (> 4-fold rise in HI antibody titers, reaching a titer of ≥ 1:40) were achieved in 80% of mice (intramuscularly vaccinated group) at 21 days after booster immunization. Virus-neutralizing antibody titers against IAV were detected at 8 months after vaccination, indicating long-lasting immunity. Overall, mice immunized with the virosome displayed greater ability for B, effector-T and memory-T cells from the spleen to respond to H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2 antigens. CONCLUSIONS All findings showed an efficient immune response against IAVs in mice vaccinated with a polyvalent virosome-based influenza vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vanessa Haach
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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6
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Martini V, Edmans M, Gubbins S, Jayaraman S, Paudyal B, Morgan S, McNee A, Morin T, Rijal P, Gerner W, Sewell AK, Inoue R, Bailey M, Connelley T, Charleston B, Townsend A, Beverley P, Tchilian E. Spatial, temporal and molecular dynamics of swine influenza virus-specific CD8 tissue resident memory T cells. Mucosal Immunol 2022; 15:428-442. [PMID: 35145208 PMCID: PMC9038527 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-021-00478-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
For the first time we have defined naïve, central memory, effector memory and differentiated effector porcine CD8 T cells and analyzed their distribution in lymphoid and respiratory tissues after influenza infection or immunization, using peptide-MHC tetramers of three influenza nucleoprotein (NP) epitopes. The hierarchy of response to the three epitopes changes during the response in different tissues. Most NP-specific CD8 T cells in broncho-alveolar lavage (BAL) and lung are tissue resident memory cells (TRM) that express CD69 and downregulate CD45RA and CCR7. NP-specific cells isolated from BAL express genes characteristic of TRM, but gene expression differs at 7, 21 and 63 days post infection. In all tissues the frequency of NP-specific CD8 cells declines over 63 days almost to background levels but is best maintained in BAL. The kinetic of influenza specific memory CD8 T cell in this natural host species differs from that in small animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Martini
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, UK.
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine, Bellinzona, Switzerland.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Théo Morin
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
| | - Pramila Rijal
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Andrew K Sewell
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
| | - Ryo Inoue
- Laboratory of Animal Science, Setsunan University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Mick Bailey
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford, UK
| | | | | | - Alain Townsend
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Peter Beverley
- National Heart and Lung Institute, St Mary's Campus, Imperial College, London, UK
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7
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Paudyal B, McNee A, Rijal P, Carr BV, Nunez A, McCauley J, Daniels RS, Townsend AR, Hammond JA, Tchilian E. Low Dose Pig Anti-Influenza Virus Monoclonal Antibodies Reduce Lung Pathology but Do Not Prevent Virus Shedding. Front Immunol 2022; 12:790918. [PMID: 34975888 PMCID: PMC8716435 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.790918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
We have established the pig, a large natural host animal for influenza, with many physiological similarities to humans, as a robust model for testing the therapeutic potential of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). In this study we demonstrated that prophylactic intravenous administration of 15 mg/kg of porcine mAb pb18, against the K160-163 site of the hemagglutinin, significantly reduced lung pathology and nasal virus shedding and eliminated virus from the lung of pigs following H1N1pdm09 challenge. When given at 1 mg/kg, pb18 significantly reduced lung pathology and lung and BAL virus loads, but not nasal shedding. Similarly, when pb18 was given in combination with pb27, which recognized the K130 site, at 1 mg/kg each, lung virus load and pathology were reduced, although without an apparent additive or synergistic effect. No evidence for mAb driven virus evolution was detected. These data indicate that intravenous administration of high doses was required to reduce nasal virus shedding, although this was inconsistent and seldom complete. In contrast, the effect on lung pathology and lung virus load is consistent and is also seen at a one log lower dose, strongly indicating that a lower dose might be sufficient to reduce severity of disease, but for prevention of transmission other measures would be needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basudev Paudyal
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
| | - Adam McNee
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
| | - Pramila Rijal
- Centre for Translational Immunology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Oxford Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Medical Research and Council (MRC) Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - B Veronica Carr
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
| | - Alejandro Nunez
- Department of Pathology and Animal Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - John McCauley
- Worldwide Influenza Centre, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rodney S Daniels
- Worldwide Influenza Centre, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alain R Townsend
- Centre for Translational Immunology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Oxford Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Medical Research and Council (MRC) Human Immunology Unit, MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - John A Hammond
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
| | - Elma Tchilian
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, United Kingdom
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8
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Paudyal B, Mwangi W, Rijal P, Schwartz JC, Noble A, Shaw A, Sealy JE, Bonnet-Di Placido M, Graham SP, Townsend A, Hammond JA, Tchilian E. Fc-Mediated Functions of Porcine IgG Subclasses. Front Immunol 2022; 13:903755. [PMID: 35757698 PMCID: PMC9218351 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.903755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The pig is an important agricultural species and powerful biomedical model. We have established the pig, a large natural host animal for influenza with many physiological similarities to humans, as a robust model for testing the therapeutic potential of monoclonal antibodies. Antibodies provide protection through neutralization and recruitment of innate effector functions through the Fc domain. However very little is known about the Fc-mediated functions of porcine IgG subclasses. We have generated 8 subclasses of two porcine monoclonal anti influenza hemagglutinin antibodies. We characterized their ability to activate complement, trigger cytotoxicity and phagocytosis by immune cells and assayed their binding to monocytes, macrophages, and natural killer cells. We show that IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b, IgG2c and IgG4 bind well to targeted cell types and mediate complement mediated cellular cytotoxicity (CDCC), antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) and antibody mediated cell phagocytosis (ADCP). IgG5b and IgG5c exhibited weak binding and variable and poor functional activity. Immune complexes of porcine IgG3 did not show any Fc-mediated functions except for binding to monocytes and macrophages and weak binding to NK cells. Interestingly, functionally similar porcine IgG subclasses clustered together in the genome. These novel findings will enhance the utility of the pig model for investigation of therapeutic antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basudev Paudyal
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Woking, United Kingdom
| | - William Mwangi
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Woking, United Kingdom
| | - Pramila Rijal
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - John C Schwartz
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Woking, United Kingdom
| | - Alistair Noble
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Woking, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Shaw
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Woking, United Kingdom
| | - Joshua E Sealy
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Woking, United Kingdom
| | | | - Simon P Graham
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Woking, United Kingdom
| | - Alain Townsend
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - John A Hammond
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Woking, United Kingdom
| | - Elma Tchilian
- Host Responses, The Pirbright Institute, Woking, United Kingdom
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9
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Holzer B, Rijal P, McNee A, Paudyal B, Martini V, Clark B, Manjegowda T, Salguero FJ, Bessell E, Schwartz JC, Moffat K, Pedrera M, Graham SP, Noble A, Placido MBD, La Ragione RM, Mwangi W, Beverley P, McCauley JW, Daniels RS, Hammond JA, Townsend AR, Tchilian E. Correction: Protective porcine influenza virus-specific monoclonal antibodies recognize similar haemagglutinin epitopes as humans. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009815. [PMID: 34347851 PMCID: PMC8336845 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009330.].
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