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Kim C, Garcia-Tome R, Hurtado C, Ding L, Wang T, Chang CF. Characteristics of hospital admissions for pulmonary alveolar proteinosis: analysis of the nationwide inpatient sample (2012-2014). BMC Pulm Med 2022; 22:365. [PMID: 36153570 PMCID: PMC9509629 DOI: 10.1186/s12890-022-02082-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) is a rare clinical syndrome involving the accumulation of lipid-rich proteinaceous material in the alveoli. There is a paucity of published studies on this condition. To better characterize the demographics, complication rates, mortality, and healthcare costs of patients hospitalized for PAP in the United States, a secondary analysis on the Hospital Cost and Utilization Project's Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) was performed on patients admitted from 2012 to 2014 with a diagnosis of pulmonary alveolar proteinosis. METHODS Using the NIS database, a secondary analysis was performed on 500 admissions with the diagnosis "pulmonary alveolar proteinosis." The clinical variables and outcome measures extracted were: patient demographics, hospital costs, length of stay, frequency of admissions, and inpatient mortality rate. RESULTS Among a weighted estimate of 500 hospital admissions from 2012 to 2014, the number of PAP admissions averaged 4.7 per million. The population was predominantly male (55%) with a mean age of 41.45 (CI 38.3-44.5) from all socioeconomic levels. Inpatient mortality was calculated to be 5%, which may result from the fact that the majority of admitted patients had few or no comorbid conditions (CCI 0.72). The most common procedure performed during admission was a bronchoalveolar lavage. Mean length of stay was 6.2 days (CI 3.9-8.5) and average cost of admission was $29,932.20 (CI 13,739-46,124). Of note, 50% of these admissions were considered "elective." CONCLUSIONS Demographics of patients with PAP who have been hospitalized in the United States are similar to previously reported demographics from prior patient cohorts, specifically a male predominance and a mean age in the 40 s. The inpatient mortality rate of 5% we found is consistent with prior studies demonstrating good disease-specific survival rates. Notably, the cost per admission and overall annual cost associated with PAP hospitalization was calculated to be $29932.20 and $5 million respectively. This reflects the high economic cost associated with hospitalization of PAP patients, and provokes thought about ways to make treatment more cost-effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chongiin Kim
- grid.42505.360000 0001 2156 6853Department of Internal Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Rodrigo Garcia-Tome
- grid.42505.360000 0001 2156 6853Department of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Carolina Hurtado
- grid.19006.3e0000 0000 9632 6718Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Li Ding
- grid.42505.360000 0001 2156 6853Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Tisha Wang
- grid.19006.3e0000 0000 9632 6718Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Ching-Fei Chang
- grid.42505.360000 0001 2156 6853Department of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
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Randerath W, Dreher M, Gompelmann D, Held M, Koczulla R, Köhnlein T, Rohde G, Wälscher J, Watz H, Steinkamp G. [Technological Innovations in Pulmonology - Examples from Diagnostics and Therapy]. Pneumologie 2020; 74:585-600. [PMID: 32663891 DOI: 10.1055/a-1186-7333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A significant proportion of the current technological developments in pneumology originate from the various areas of information technology. The spectrum ranges from smartphone apps to be used in daily life or in patient care to the use of artificial intelligence in screening and early detection of diseases. The diagnostic accuracy of apps for symptom analysis is currently very limited. Research projects are performed on the integration of symptoms and functional parameters into early detection, but also on mobility measurements as a prognostic marker in COPD. Lung cancer screening using computed tomography represents a major challenge. Here, artificial intelligence can help radiologists to cope with huge amounts of data. However, the quality of the software depends on the sufficient training of the system. Technological developments shape all fields of pneumology. For diagnostic and interventional endoscopy, they offer improved biopsy techniques and microstructural imaging. Advances in lung function measurements allow the differentiated analysis of respiratory mechanical disorders, and they could be transferred to ventilation technology. The translation of basic findings about the lung microbiome into patient care may perspectively help to better understand and treat COPD exacerbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Randerath
- Klinik für Pneumologie und Allergologie, Krankenhaus Bethanien, Solingen
| | - M Dreher
- Klinik für Pneumologie und Internistische Intensivmedizin, Medizinische Klinik V, Universitätsklinikum Aachen
| | - D Gompelmann
- Klinische Abteilung für Pulmologie, Universitätsklinik Innere Medizin II, Wien
| | - M Held
- Missioklinik, Klinikum Würzburg Mitte, Zentrum für Thoraxmedizin Würzburg, Medizinische Klinik mit Schwerpunkt Pneumologie und Beatmungsmedizin
| | - R Koczulla
- Fachzentrum für Pneumologie, Schön Klinik Berchtesgadener Land und Universitätsklinikum Marburg
| | - T Köhnlein
- Pneumologisches Facharztzentrum Teuchern
| | - G Rohde
- Pneumologie/Allergologie, Medizinische Klinik 1, Universitätsklinikum Frankfurt
| | - J Wälscher
- Pneumologie, Ruhrlandklinik, Universitätsmedizin Essen
| | - H Watz
- Pneumologisches Forschungsinstitut an der LungenClinic Großhansdorf, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), Deutsches Zentrum für Lungenforschung (DZL)
| | - G Steinkamp
- Medizinisch-wissenschaftliches Publizieren, Schwerin
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4
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Rodríguez Portal JA. Treatment of Adult Primary Alveolar Proteinosis. Arch Bronconeumol 2015; 51:344-9. [PMID: 25896950 DOI: 10.1016/j.arbres.2015.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2014] [Revised: 01/25/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) is a rare disease characterized by the accumulation of surfactant-like lipoproteinaceous material in the distal air spaces and terminal bronchi, which may lead to impaired gas exchange. This accumulation of surfactant is due to decreased clearance by the alveolar macrophages. Its primary, most common form, is currently considered an autoimmune disease. Better knowledge of the causes of PAP have led to the emergence of alternatives to whole lung lavage, although this is still considered the treatment of choice. Most studies are case series, often with limited patient numbers, so the level of evidence is low. Since the severity of presentation and clinical course are variable, not all patients will require treatment. Due to the low level of evidence, some objective criteria based on expert opinion have been arbitrarily proposed in an attempt to define in which patients it is best to initiate treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Antonio Rodríguez Portal
- UMQER Centro de investigación en red de enfermedades respiratorias (CIBERES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, España; Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/Virgen Macarena, Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBIS)/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, España.
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Jouneau S, Kerjouan M, Briens E, Lenormand JP, Meunier C, Letheulle J, Chiforeanu D, Lainé-Caroff C, Desrues B, Delaval P. La protéinose alvéolaire pulmonaire. Rev Mal Respir 2014; 31:975-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rmr.2014.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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6
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Silva A, Moreto A, Pinho C, Magalhães A, Morais A, Fiuza C. Bilateral whole lung lavage in pulmonary alveolar proteinosis--a retrospective study. REVISTA PORTUGUESA DE PNEUMOLOGIA 2014; 20:254-9. [PMID: 25042291 DOI: 10.1016/j.rppneu.2014.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2014] [Revised: 04/11/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Whole lung lavage (WLL) is the gold standard technique for the treatment of Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis (PAP). In this paper we evaluated and discuss bilateral WLL, namely the procedure work-up and the therapeutic efficacy. Six bilateral WLL performed through a careful adherence to a modified Royal Brompton Hospital (London) technique were carried out without major complications and were associated with clinical and functional improvement of the PAP patients submitted to this procedure. As there are benefits in terms of time, patient comfort and cost effectiveness compared to unilateral WLL, associated with the efficacy and safety observed, bilateral WLL seems to be a suitable first choice for therapeutic lavage in PAP patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Silva
- Medical Resident in Anesthesiology, Centro Hospitalar São João, Porto, Portugal.
| | - A Moreto
- Medical Resident in Anesthesiology, Centro Hospitalar São João, Porto, Portugal.
| | - C Pinho
- Medical Resident in Anesthesiology, Centro Hospitalar São João, Porto, Portugal.
| | - A Magalhães
- Consultant in Pneumology, Centro Hospitalar São João, Porto, Portugal.
| | - A Morais
- Medical Assistent in Pneumology, Centro Hospitalar São João, Porto, Portugal.
| | - C Fiuza
- Consultant in Anesthesiology, Centro Hospitalar São João, Porto, Portugal.
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Rebelo HM, Guedes L, Veiga D, Fiuza AC, Abelha F. Anaesthetic, procedure and complications management of serial whole-lung lavage in an obese patient with pulmonary alveolar proteinosis: case report. Rev Bras Anestesiol 2014. [PMID: 23176995 DOI: 10.1016/s0034-7094(12)70187-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES The first case of Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis (PAP) was described by Rose in 1958, but it is still a rare disorder. PAP is characterized by deposition of lipoproteinaceous material secondary to abnormal processing of surfactant by macrophages. Patients may suffer from progressive dyspnea and cough that at times is accompanied by worsening hypoxia and its course can vary from progressive deterioration to spontaneous improvement. Many therapies have been used to treat PAP including antibiotics, postural drainage, and intermittent positive pressure breathing with aerosolized Acetylcysteine, heparin and saline. At present, the mainstay of treatment is whole lung lavage (WLL). Although generally well tolerated, WLL can be associated with some complications. CASE REPORT We report a case of severe PAP through the anaesthetic, procedure and complications management of pulmonary alveolar proteinosis in one patient who has undergone multiple, alternating, single-lung lavages over the past seven years, the last three in our hospital, with improvements in her symptoms following each therapy.
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LETH STEFFEN, BENDSTRUP ELISABETH, VESTERGAARD HANNE, HILBERG OLE. Autoimmune pulmonary alveolar proteinosis: Treatment options in year 2013. Respirology 2012; 18:82-91. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1843.2012.02274.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Algurashi F, Ong B, Unruh H. Hemodynamic, respiratory, and fluid volume changes with bronchopulmonary lavage. J Clin Anesth 2011; 23:594-6. [PMID: 22050814 DOI: 10.1016/j.jclinane.2010.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2010] [Revised: 09/18/2010] [Accepted: 10/12/2010] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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10
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Firat ND, Cıledağ A, Kabalak PA, Karnak D, Meco BC, Alanoğlu Z, Alkiş N. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis and successful therapy with combined lavage procedures: Case reports. Exp Ther Med 2011; 2:569-573. [PMID: 22977542 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2011.230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2011] [Accepted: 03/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) is a rare disease characterized by the accumulation of lipoproteinaceous material within alveolar spaces. Whole-lung lavage (WLL) has been the most common therapeutic intervention for this disorder. However, patients presenting with PAP are usually hypoxemic or in poor clinical condition, and WLL may be impossible to perform. In such cases, multiple segmental lavage (MSL) may be advocated as a first-choice therapy prior to WLL. Herein, we present two cases with idiopathic PAP treated successfully with both lavage techniques consecutively. After the MSL procedure, WLL was performed, and both patients showed a marked clinical and physiologic improvement. Therefore, for patients who are not good candidates for general anesthesia, we recommend MSL (or 'prewash') before WLL to produce an increase in the blood oxygen level for long-duration general anesthesia. In the surgical room, close monitoring and repositioning of the patient as well as maintenance and inspection of the correct tube position, and manual chest wall percussion are extremely important for the safety and success of the procedure.
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Reiter K, Schoen C, Griese M, Nicolai T. Whole-lung lavage in infants and children with pulmonary alveolar proteinosis. Paediatr Anaesth 2010; 20:1118-23. [PMID: 21199121 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9592.2010.03442.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) is a rare alveolar filling syndrome where the mainstay of treatment is therapeutic whole-lung lavage (WLL). WLL techniques used in adults have to be modified for children because of their small-diameter airways. AIM To describe a technique for WLL adapted for small children. METHODS We describe a WLL technique that combines safe single-lung ventilation with the use of an age-appropriate endotracheal tube and selective occlusion of the other main bronchus with a balloon catheter through which the lavage is performed. Effectiveness measured by change in oxygen requirements and adverse effects was noted. RESULTS We performed 64 WLL procedures in four children (age 13 months to 7 years; body weight 4.7-14 kg). Two children had idiopathic and two had secondary PAP. At referral, all children had dyspnoea at rest and required continuous oxygen supplementation. Two patients showed significantly decreased oxygen demands and radiological improvement after WLL. Two patients showed no significant response. The only adverse effect observed was transient hypoxemia. Complications comprised fluid leak at the balloon (4), balloon rupture (1), and pneumothorax (1). CONCLUSIONS This technique for WLL combining single-lung ventilation with an endotracheal tube and lung exclusion for lavage with a balloon catheter can be safely and effectively performed in small children with PAP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl Reiter
- Kinderklinik und Kinderpoliklinik der Universitaet Muenchen am Dr. von Haunerschen Kinderspital, Muenchen, Germany.
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12
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Luisetti M, Kadija Z, Mariani F, Rodi G, Campo I, Trapnell BC. Therapy options in pulmonary alveolar proteinosis. Ther Adv Respir Dis 2010; 4:239-48. [PMID: 20647242 DOI: 10.1177/1753465810378023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis is a rare condition characterized by the accumulation of lipoproteinaceous material within the airspaces, resulting in impaired gas transfer, and clinical manifestations ranging from asymptomatic to severe respiratory failure. To the best of the authors' knowledge, there are only a few conditions whose natural history has been so dramatically changed by the influence of advances in basic science, clinical medicine, and translational research in therapeutic approaches. Whole-lung lavage is the current standard of care and it plays a critical role as a modifier factor of the natural history of proteinosis. That notwithstanding, the identification of autoantibodies neutralizing granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in serum and lung of patients affected by the form of proteinosis previously referred to as idiopathic, has opened the way to novel therapeutic options, such as supplementation of exogenous granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, or strategies aimed at reducing the levels of the autoantibodies. The aim of this paper is to provide an updated review of the current therapeutic approach to proteinosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Luisetti
- SC Pneumologia, Fondazione IRCCS, Policlinico San Matteo, Piazza Golgi 1, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
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Xu Z, Jing J, Wang H, Xu F, Wang J. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis in China: a systematic review of 241 cases. Respirology 2009; 14:761-6. [PMID: 19476601 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1843.2009.01539.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) is a rare pulmonary disease. It was first described in China in 1965, and more cases have been reported subsequently. A systematic review was performed on 241 cases of PAP in China and progress in the diagnosis and treatment of this disease is discussed. METHODS The Chinese biological and medical databases from 1965 to 2006 were searched and 241 cases with complete clinical and pathological data were identified. The clinical characteristics of the disease were summarized and longitudinal comparisons were made of diagnostic and treatment methods over time. RESULTS The morbidity associated with PAP has increased in recent years. The clinical manifestations were non-specific. Progressive dyspnoea, cough and sputum were the most common symptoms. The percentage of patients undergoing CT examination has increased over the years. The combination of bronchoscopic biopsy and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) was usually sufficient to establish the diagnosis. Treatment was reported for a total of 142 cases. BAL and whole lung lavage were both effective and were only required once by most patients. CONCLUSIONS The demographic characteristics and clinical manifestations of PAP patients in China are largely consistent with previous reports. Morbidity has increased dramatically in recent years, mainly due to the broad application of bronchoscopy since 1995. CT is very important for diagnosis of the disease. The long-term effects of treatment by whole lung lavage and BAL are similar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihao Xu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang, Zhejiang, China
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Paschen C, Reiter K, Stanzel F, Teschler H, Griese M. Therapeutic lung lavages in children and adults. Respir Res 2005; 6:138. [PMID: 16303053 PMCID: PMC1310528 DOI: 10.1186/1465-9921-6-138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2005] [Accepted: 11/22/2005] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) is a rare disease, characterized by excessive intra-alveolar accumulation of surfactant lipids and proteins. Therapeutic whole lung lavages are currently the principle therapeutic option in adults. Not much is known on the kinetics of the wash out process, especially in children. Methods In 4 pediatric and 6 adult PAP patients 45 therapeutic half lung lavages were investigated retrospectively. Total protein, protein concentration and, in one child with a surfactant protein C mutation, aberrant pro-SP-C protein, were determined during wash out. Results The removal of protein from the lungs followed an exponential decline and averaged for adult patients 2 – 20 g and <0.5 to 6 g for pediatric patients. The average protein concentration of consecutive portions was the same in all patient groups, however was elevated in pediatric patients when expressed per body weight. The amount of an aberrant pro-SP-C protein, which was present in one patient with a SP-C mutation, constantly decreased with ongoing lavage. Measuring the optical density of the lavage fluid obtained allowed to monitor the wash out process during the lavages at the bedside and to determine the termination of the lavage procedure at normal protein concentration. Conclusion Following therapeutic half lung lavages by biochemical variables may help to estimate the degree of alveolar filling with proteinaceous material and to improve the efficiency of the wash out, especially in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Paschen
- Dr. von Haunersches Kinderspital, University of Munich, Lindwurmstr. 4a, D-80337 Munich, Germany
| | - Karl Reiter
- Dr. von Haunersches Kinderspital, University of Munich, Lindwurmstr. 4a, D-80337 Munich, Germany
| | - Franz Stanzel
- ASKLEPIOS Fachkliniken, Zentrum für Pneumologie und Thoraxchirurgie, Robert-Koch-Allee 2, D-82131 München-Gauting, Germany
| | - Helmut Teschler
- Ruhrlandklinik, Department Respiratory and Sleep Medicine, University of Essen, Tüschener Weg 40, Germany
| | - Matthias Griese
- Dr. von Haunersches Kinderspital, University of Munich, Lindwurmstr. 4a, D-80337 Munich, Germany
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Perez A, Coxson HO, Hogg JC, Gibson K, Thompson PF, Rogers RM. Use of CT Morphometry To Detect Changes in Lung Weight and Gas Volume. Chest 2005; 128:2471-7. [PMID: 16236911 DOI: 10.1378/chest.128.4.2471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES CT estimates of lung density have been used to estimate the extent and severity of emphysema. The present study was designed to test the hypothesis that quantitative CT can track the changes that occur in diffuse lung disease. DESIGN The study was based on five patients with pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) who underwent lung lavage. Pulmonary function was measured before and after each individual lung lavage, and the CT scans before and after lavage were used to compare total lung volume, airspace volume, lung weight, and regional lung inflation. The dry weight of proteinaceous material lavaged from the lung was measured and compared to the change in CT lung weight. RESULTS All the patients showed improvements in dyspnea, percentage of predicted diffusion capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide, and FVC. There was no change in CT-measured total lung volume or airspace volume, but there was a reduction in lung weight following lavage (p = 0.001), which correlated with the dry weight of the lavage effluent (R(2) = 0.73). Therefore, there was a shift in the regional lung inflation toward a more inflated lung with a corresponding increase in the mean lung inflation (p = 0.001). CONCLUSION These data show that quantitative CT can objectively track the changes in lung weight and airspace inflation produced by a standard intervention in PAP, and we postulate that it can provide similar information about the progression of other diffuse lung diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Perez
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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