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Obonyo FO, Maingi N, Githigia SM, Ochwedo KO, Owiti AA, Nyaboga EN. First Report on the Molecular Detection and Genetic Characterization of Toxoplasma gondii From Donkeys in Kenya. Acta Parasitol 2024:10.1007/s11686-024-00905-z. [PMID: 39160342 DOI: 10.1007/s11686-024-00905-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2024] [Accepted: 08/05/2024] [Indexed: 08/21/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE The present study was conducted to determine the presence of Toxoplasma gondii in donkeys by molecular tests and genetic diversity analysis of the obtained DNA samples from central Kenya. METHOD A total of 363 blood samples were collected from donkeys in Meru and Kirinyaga Counties, and 96 samples that were previously seropositive for T. gondii using indirect ELISA were subjected to nested PCR based on the amplification of the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS-1) gene followed by DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Genotyping was performed on 15 selected positive samples using multilocus nested polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism (Mn-PCR-RFLP) with eight genetic markers ('SAG 2, 5'SAG 2, Alt. SAG 2, SAG 3, GRA 6, C29-2, BTUB and L358). RESULTS Toxoplasma gondii DNA was detected in 36.5% (35/96) of the blood samples. The sequences obtained exhibited 98.2-99.5% homology with those deposited in GenBank. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that the obtained sequences are conserved and clustered with those of infecting animals from other regions of the world. Eighteen distinct T. gondii haplotypes were identified to be circulating in donkeys from central Kenya. The T. gondii DNA samples exhibited high haplotype diversity (Hd: 0.915) and limited genetic diversity (π = 0.01027). PCR-RFLP of T. gondii DNA-positive samples revealed three different genetic combinations that consisted of alleles I, II and III, indicating the dissemination of atypical genotypes. CONCLUSION This study demonstrated that T. gondii is widespread in donkeys from Kenya and could be a possible source of infection in humans. These findings are important for designing control strategies for this parasite to improve the livestock sector, which is one of the main sources of livelihood for farmers in Kenya.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrick O Obonyo
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi, 00625, Kenya.
- Department of Animal Science, Meru University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 972, Meru, 60200, Kenya.
| | - Ndichu Maingi
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi, 00625, Kenya
| | - Samuel M Githigia
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Kangemi, 00625, Kenya
| | - Kevin O Ochwedo
- Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology and Nematology, University of Idaho, 492 W Taylor Ave, Apt 6, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Anne A Owiti
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
| | - Evans N Nyaboga
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
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Bonsi M, Anderson NE, Carder G. The Socioeconomic Impact of Diseases of Working Equids in Low and Middle-Income Countries: A Critical Review. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:3865. [PMID: 38136902 PMCID: PMC10741040 DOI: 10.3390/ani13243865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Working equids provide a crucial contribution to the livelihoods and food security of communities in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Nevertheless, they are a neglected category within animal health policies and interventions of governmental and non-governmental institutions. This critical review aims to assess the socioeconomic impact of diseases of working equids in LMICs. By highlighting the implications of diseases on working equid welfare, human wellbeing and livelihoods, this review seeks to sensitise policymakers within governments and international organisations to develop policies and interventions aimed at protecting the health of working equids and, consequently, the health and livelihoods of their dependent communities. Twenty relevant publications were identified through the search of five databases (CAB Abstracts, Web of Science Core Collection, BIOSIS, EMBASE and Scopus), backward citation searching and screening of indexes of proceedings and Special Issues retrieved from the database search. The review findings show that diseases of working equids have detrimental socioeconomic effects. However, this subject is under-researched and restricted to few diseases and geographical settings. Considering the complexity of the issue, this review demonstrates that the 'One Health' approach represents an opportunity to clarify the link between equid health, human wellbeing and livelihoods, facilitating the translation of research into policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Bonsi
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Neil E. Anderson
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Gemma Carder
- Brooke, Action for Working Horses and Donkeys, 2nd Floor, The Hallmark Building, 52-56 Leadenhall Street, London EC3A 2BJ, UK
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Grace DC, Diall O, Saville K, Warboys D, Ward P, Wild I, Perry BD. The Global Contributions of Working Equids to Sustainable Agriculture and Livelihoods in Agenda 2030. ECOHEALTH 2022; 19:342-353. [PMID: 36048298 PMCID: PMC9434516 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-022-01613-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Small farmers produce most food in low- and middle-income countries and most small farmers rely on directly or indirectly working equids (WE). The lack of methods and metrics for assessing the role of WE hampers realisation of WE contributions. Based on literature review and a survey of WE welfare experts, we propose a framework for optimising WE potential based on two axes of sustainable development goals (SDGs) and value chains. WE contribute especially to earning and sparing income (largely in food production) (SDG 1), but also have roles in accessing health and hygiene services and products (SDG 3 and 5), providing edible products (SDG 2), and benefiting women (SDG 6), with lesser contributions to other SDGs, notably climate action (SDG 13). Experts identified barriers to appropriate appreciation of WE contributions, in order to target actions to overcome them. They found WE are neglected because they belong to farmers who are themselves neglected; because information on WE is inadequate; and, because the unique nature and roles of WE means systems, policies, investors, markets and service providers struggle to cater for them. Harnessing WE to optimally contribute to sustainable development will require generating better evidence on their contributions to SDGs, ensuring better integration into ongoing efforts to attain SDGs, and building the WE capacity among development actors.
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Affiliation(s)
- D C Grace
- Natural Resources Institute, Central Avenue, University of Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, ME4 4TB, Kent, UK
- Animal and Human Health Program, International Livestock Research Institute, Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - O Diall
- Independent Consultant, Bamako, Mali
| | - K Saville
- Brooke-Action for Working Horses and Donkeys, 52-56 Leadenhall Street, London, EC3A 2BJ, UK
| | - D Warboys
- World Horse Welfare, Anne Colvin House, Snetterton, NR16 2LR, Norwich, UK
| | - P Ward
- World Horse Welfare, Anne Colvin House, Snetterton, NR16 2LR, Norwich, UK
| | - I Wild
- World Horse Welfare, Anne Colvin House, Snetterton, NR16 2LR, Norwich, UK
| | - B D Perry
- Nuffield College of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 1NF, UK.
- College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, South Bridge, Edinburgh, EH8 9YL, UK.
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Bukhari SSUH, Rosanowski SM, McElligott AG, Parkes RSV. Welfare Concerns for Mounted Load Carrying by Working Donkeys in Pakistan. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:886020. [PMID: 35692297 PMCID: PMC9186103 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.886020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Working donkeys (Equus asinus) are vital to people's livelihoods. They are essential for carrying goods, however, globally, overloading is one of the primary welfare concerns for working donkeys. We studied mounted load carrying by donkeys and associated factors in Pakistan. A cross-sectional study of donkey owners (n = 332) was conducted, and interviews were undertaken based on a questionnaire. Owners estimated that the median weight of their donkeys was 110 kg [interquartile range (IQR) 100–120 kg], and that they carried a median mounted load of 81.5 kg (IQR 63–99 kg). We found that 87.4% of donkeys carried a load above 50% of their bodyweight ratio (BWR), the median BWR carried was 77.1% (IQR 54.5–90.7%), and 25.3% of donkeys carried above 90% BWR. Donkeys that were loaded at more than 50% BWR were more likely to adopt sternal recumbency compared to donkeys loaded with less weight (P = 0.01). Donkeys carrying construction material were more likely to carry more than the median BWR, when compared to domestic loads (P < 0.001). Younger donkeys aged between one and 5 years carried more than the median BWR compared to those aged over 15 years (P = 0.03). For the models with donkeys carrying median BWR and above 90% BWR, those working in peri-urban and urban areas were more likely to carry a greater BWR than donkeys working in rural areas (P < 0.001; P < 0.001, respectively). For donkeys carrying more than 90% BWR, mixed breed donkeys carried higher loads compared to other breeds of donkeys (P < 0.001). Overloading based on current recommendations (50% BWR) was common, with the majority (87.4%) of donkeys reported to carry more than the recommended 50% limit. This survey provides evidence of on-the-ground working practices and factors associated with mounted load carrying, which is critical for developing evidence-based recommendations for loading, in order to improve the welfare of working donkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed S. U. H. Bukhari
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- *Correspondence: Syed S. U. H. Bukhari
| | | | - Alan G. McElligott
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Centre for Animal Health and Welfare, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Rebecca S. V. Parkes
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Centre for Animal Health and Welfare, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Rebecca S. V. Parkes
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Occurrence of serum antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii and associated risk factors in donkeys from central Kenya. Trop Anim Health Prod 2022; 54:77. [PMID: 35076783 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-022-03079-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular parasite of zoonotic concern and economic importance in humans and animals, respectively. This study was conducted to determine the occurrence of T. gondii and associated risk factors in domestic donkeys from Kirinyaga and Meru counties in Kenya. Blood samples were collected from 363 randomly selected donkeys for detection of antibodies to T. gondii using a commercial kit ID Screen® Toxoplasmosis Multi-species indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The data on risk factors were collected by interviewing donkey owners using epidemiological questionnaire. Serum antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 26.4% (95% CI: 22.2-31.3) of the donkeys. The analysis showed that age of donkeys (OR = 2.484, 95% CI: 1.315-4.693; p = 0.005) was associated with increased risk for T. gondii seroprevalence while county of origin of donkeys (OR = 0.182, 95% CI: 0.083-0.400; p = 0.000), residential place of donkeys (OR = 0.301, 95% CI: 0.136-0.665; p = 0.003), rearing chicken (OR = 0.203, 95% CI: 0.064-0.644; p = 0.007), and donkey production system (OR = 0.644, 95% CI: 0.456-0.909; p = 0.012) were associated with reduced risk of T. gondii seroprevalence. This is the first report to provide epidemiological information on T. gondii infection among donkeys in Kenya. The presence of antibodies to T. gondii in donkeys suggests the high potential of transmission to other animals and humans. Regular monitoring and control of T. gondii infection in donkeys were recommended in the study area.
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