Chronic Remote Ischemic Conditioning May Mimic Regular Exercise:Perspective from Clinical Studies

Remote Ischemic Conditioning in Stroke Recovery

Remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) is a therapeutic strategy to protect a vital organ like the brain from ischemic injury through brief and repeat cycles of ischemia and reperfusion in remote body parts such as arm or leg. RIC has been applied in different aspects of the stroke field and has shown promise. This narrative review will provide an overview of how to implement RIC in stroke patients, summarize the clinical evidence of RIC on stroke recovery, and discuss unresolved questions and future study directions.

A novel stroke rehabilitation strategy and underlying stress granule regulations through inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome activation

OBJECTIVE

Dynamic changes in ischemic pathology after stroke suggested a "critical window" of enhanced neuroplasticity immediately after stroke onset. Although physical exercise has long been considered a promising strategy of stroke rehabilitation, very early physical exercise may exacerbate brain injury. Since remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) promotes neuroprotection and neuroplasticity, the present study combined RIC with sequential exercise to establish a new rehabilitation strategy for a better rehabilitative outcome.

METHODS

A total of 120 adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were used and divided into five groups: (1) sham, (2) stroke, (3) stroke with exercise, (4) stroke with RIC, and (5) stroke with RIC followed by exercise. Brain damage was evaluated by infarct volume, neurological deficit, cell death, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity. Long-term functional outcomes were determined by grid walk tests, rotarod tests, beam balance tests, forelimb placing tests, and the Morris water maze. Neuroplasticity was evaluated through measurements of both mRNA and protein levels of synaptogenesis (synaptophysin [SYN], post-synaptic density protein-95 [PSD-95], and brain-derived neurotrophic factor [BDNF]) and angiogenesis (vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF], angiopoietin-1 [Ang-1], and angiopoietin-2 [Ang-2]). Inflammasome activation was measured by concentrations of interleukin-18 (IL-18) and IL-1β detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits, mRNA expressions of NLR pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3), apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a C-terminal caspase recruitment domain (ASC), IL-18 and IL-1β, and protein quantities of NLRP3, ASC, cleaved-caspase-1, gasdermin D-N (GSDMD-N), and IL-18 and IL-1β. Stress granules (SGs), including GTPase-activating protein-binding protein 1 (G3BP1), T cell-restricted intracellular antigen-1 (TIA1), and DEAD-box RNA helicase 3X (DDX3X) were evaluated at mRNA and protein levels. The interactions between DDX3X with NLRP3 or G3BP1 were determined by immunofluorescence and co-immunoprecipitation.

RESULTS

Early RIC decreased infarct volumes, neurological deficits, cell death, and LDH activity at post-stroke Day 3 (p < 0.05). All treatment groups showed significant improvement in functional outcomes, including sensory, motor, and cognitive functions. RIC and exercise, as compared to RIC or physical exercise alone, had improved functional outcomes after stroke (p < 0.05), as well as synaptogenesis and angiogenesis (p < 0.05). RIC significantly reduced mRNA and protein expressions of NLRP3 (p < 0.05). SGs formation peaked at 0 h after ischemia, then progressively decreased until 24 h postreperfusion, which was reversed by RIC (p < 0.05). The assembly of SGs consumed DDX3X and then inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

CONCLUSIONS

RIC followed by exercise induced a better rehabilitation in ischemic rats, while early RIC alleviated ischemia-reperfusion injury via stress-granule-mediated inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome.

Optimal rehabilitation strategies for early postacute stroke recovery: An ongoing inquiry

Early rehabilitation is crucial in reducing stroke-related disability, but the optimal training model remains unclear. We conducted a trial comparing different initiation timings and intensities of mobilization strategies after stroke. Results showed that early intensive mobilization had favorable outcomes at 3 months post-stroke, while very early intensive mobilization had poorer chances of favorable outcomes. Our investigation into brain injury mechanisms induced by very early exercise within 24 hours of stroke onset aligned with guidelines advising against high-dose very early mobilization. Additionally, we are studying the effects of various exercise intensities and frequencies on early stroke rehabilitation. Integrated rehabilitation models, such as combining remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) with exercise (RICE), hold promise. Our study found RICE to be safe and feasible for early rehabilitation of acute ischemic stroke patients, and further research is underway to determine its efficacy in a larger sample size. Despite extensive research, identifying the most effective early recovery strategies remains a complex challenge, necessitating ongoing work in the field of early rehabilitation after stroke.

Chronic Remote Ischemic Conditioning on Mild Hypertension in the Absence of Antihypertensive Medication: A Multicenter, Randomized, Double-Blind, Proof-of-Concept Clinical Trial

BACKGROUND

Exploratory studies have shown that remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) has the potential to lower blood pressure (BP). We investigated whether chronic RIC reduces BP for hypertension.

METHODS

This is a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, parallel-controlled trial. Patients with an office BP of 130/80 to 160/100 mm Hg and a 24-hour average BP ≥125/75 mm Hg not on antihypertensive medications were recruited. After a 1-week compliance screening phase, they were randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to receive RIC or sham RIC twice daily for 4 weeks. The primary efficacy outcome was the change in 24-hour average systolic BP from baseline to 4 weeks. Safety events were assessed over the study period.

RESULTS

Ninety-five participants were randomly allocated to the RIC (n=49) and sham RIC (n=46) groups. In the intention-to-treat analysis, the reduction in 24-hour average systolic BP was greater in the RIC group than the sham RIC group (-4.6±9.5 versus -0.9±6.8 mm Hg; baseline-adjusted between-group mean difference: -3.6 mm Hg [95% CI, -6.9 to -0.3 mm Hg]; adjusted P=0.035). The per-protocol analysis showed that 24-hour average systolic BP reduced -5.9±8.6 mm Hg in the RIC group and -0.7±6.7 mm Hg in the sham RIC group (baseline-adjusted between-group mean difference: -5.2 mm Hg [95% CI, -8.5 to -1.9 mm Hg]; adjusted P=0.002). No major adverse events were reported in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

RIC is safe in patients with mild hypertension and may lower BP in the absence of antihypertensive medications. However, the effects of RIC on clinical outcomes in these patients require further investigation.

REGISTRATION

URL: https://www.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov; Unique identifier: NCT04915313.

The Key Role of Initiation Timing on Stroke Rehabilitation by Remote Ischemic Conditioning with Exercise (RICE)

OBJECTIVE

Physical therapy is an integral part of post-stroke rehabilitation. Remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) induces neuroprotection within 24 hours after stroke, during which exercise is unsafe and ineffective. We combined RIC with exercise to establish a novel rehabilitation strategy, RICE (RIC+Exercise). The aim of this study was to optimize the RICE protocol in neurorehabilitation.

METHODS

Thirty-two adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were placed in one of four groups: stroke with no rehabilitation or stroke with various RICE protocols. To further understand the mechanisms underlying neurorehabilitation, sixteen adult male Sprague-Dawley were added, each placed in one of two groups: stroke with exerciseor RIC  . Long-term functional outcomes were determined by beam balance, rota-rod, grid walk, forelimb placing, and Morris water maze tests up to 28 days after stroke (p < 0.05). Changes in neuroplasticity including synaptogenesis (assessed by measuring synaptophysin, post-synaptic density protein-95, and brain-derived neutrophic factor), angiogenesis (via vascular endothelial growth factor, Angiopoietin-1, and Angiopoietin-2), and regulatory molecules (including hypoxia inducible factor-1α, phospholipase D2 and the mechanistic target of rapamycin pathway), were all measured at both mRNA and protein levels (p < 0.05).

RESULTS

All rehabilitation groups showed significant improvement in functional outcomes and levels of synaptogenesis and angiogenesis. 5 day RICE groups, in which RIC was started five days prior to exercise, demonstrated the greatest improvement among these parameters. The results also suggested that the HIF-1α/PLD2/mTOR signaling pathway may be implicated in post-stroke neuroplasticity.

CONCLUSIONS

RICE, particularly RIC initiation at hour 6 post-reperfusion followed by exercise on day 5, enhanced post-stroke rehabilitation in rats.

Exercise postconditioning reduces ischemic injury via suppression of cerebral gluconeogenesis in rats

Pre-stroke exercise conditioning reduces neurovascular injury and improves functional outcomes after stroke. The goal of this study was to explore if post-stroke exercise conditioning (PostE) reduced brain injury and whether it was associated with the regulation of gluconeogenesis. Adult rats received 2 h of middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion, followed by 24 h of reperfusion. Treadmill activity was then initiated 24 h after reperfusion for PostE. The severity of the brain damage was determined by infarct volume, apoptotic cell death, and neurological deficit at one and three days after reperfusion. We measured gluconeogenesis including oxaloacetate (OAA), phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), pyruvic acid, lactate, ROS, and glucose via ELISA, as well as the location and expression of the key enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PCK)-1/2 via immunofluorescence. We also determined upstream pathways including forkhead transcription factor (FoxO1), p-FoxO1, 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt, and p-PI3K/Akt via Western blot. Additionally, the cytoplasmic expression of p-FoxO1 was detected by immunofluorescence. Compared to non-exercise control, PostE (*p < .05) decreased brain infarct volumes, neurological deficits, and cell death at one and three days. PostE groups (*p < .05) saw increases in OAA and decreases in PEP, pyruvic acid, lactate, ROS, glucose levels, and tissue PCKs expression on both days. PCK-1/2 expressions were also significantly (*p < .05) suppressed by the exercise setting. Additionally, phosphorylated PI3K, AKT, and FoxO1 protein expression were significantly induced by PostE at one and three days (*p < .05). In this study, PostE reduced brain injury after stroke, in association with activated PI3K/AKT/FoxO1 signaling, and inhibited gluconeogenesis. These results suggest the involvement of FoxO1 regulation of gluconeogenesis underlying post-stroke neuroprotection.

A review of remote ischemic conditioning as a potential strategy for neural repair poststroke

Ischemic stroke is one of the major disabling health-care problem and multiple different approaches are needed to enhance rehabilitation, in which neural repair is the structural basement. Remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) is a strategy to trigger endogenous protect. RIC has been reported to play neuroprotective role in acute stage of stroke, but the effect of RIC on repair process remaining unclear. Several studies have discovered some overlapped mechanisms RIC and neural repair performs. This review provides a hypothesis that RIC is a potential therapeutic strategy on stroke rehabilitation by evaluating the existing evidence and puts forward some remaining questions to clarify and future researches to be performed in the field.

Remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) with exercise (RICE) is safe and feasible for acute ischemic stroke (AIS) patients

OBJECTIVE

Rehabilitation is essential in reducing stroke disability and should be performed as early as possible. Exercise is an established and effective rehabilitation method; however, its implementation has been limited as its very early use exacerbates cerebral injury and is restricted by patients' unstable conditions and disabilities. Remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) is a passive and accessible therapy in acute phases of stroke and appears to have similar neuroprotective effects as exercise. This study assessed the safety and feasibility of the novel rehabilitation strategy-early RIC followed by exercise (RICE) in acute ischemic stroke (AIS).

METHODS

We conducted a single-center, double-blinded, randomized controlled trial with AIS patients within 24 h of stroke onset or symptom exacerbation. All enrolled patients were randomly assigned, at a ratio of 1:1, to either the RICE group or the sham-RICE group (sham RIC with exercise). Each group received either RIC or sham RIC within 24 h after stroke onset or symptom exacerbation, once a day, for 14 days. Both groups started the exercise routine on day 4, twice daily, for 11 total days. The safety endpoints included clinical deterioration, recurrence of stroke, hemorrhagic transformation, complications, and adverse events resulting from RICE during hospitalization. The efficacy endpoints [Modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score, National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score, Barthel Index, and walking ability] were evaluated at admission and 90 days after stroke onset.

RESULTS

Forty AIS patients were recruited and completed the study. No significant differences in baseline characteristics were found between the two groups, which included risk factors, stroke severity at admission, pre-morbid disability, and other special treatments. No significant differences were found in the safety endpoints between two groups. Excellent recovery (mRS 0-2) at 3 months was obtained in 55% of the patients with RICE as compared 40% in sham group, but it did not reach a significant level.

CONCLUSIONS

RICE was safe and feasible for AIS patients, and seems to be a promising early stroke rehabilitation. The results of this study suggest a need for a future randomized and controlled multicenter trial with a larger sample size to determine the efficacy of RICE.

Chronic remote ischemic conditioning for symptomatic internal carotid or middle cerebral artery occlusion: A prospective cohort study

AIMS

Remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) has been demonstrated to reduce recurrent stroke in patients with intracranial artery stenosis. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of RIC in patients with the symptomatic internal carotid artery (ICA) or middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion.

METHODS

This study is based on a high-volume single-center prospective cohort study in China, which included patients with symptomatic ICA or MCA occlusion with impaired hemodynamics and receiving chronic RIC. Clinical follow-up visits were performed regularly, and cardio-cerebrovascular events were assessed.

RESULTS

In total, 131 patients (68 with ICA occlusion and 63 with MCA occlusion; mean age, 52.6 ± 13.7 years; stroke, 73.5%; transient ischemic attack TIA, 26.5%) qualified for the analysis; the mean follow-up period was 8.8 years (range, 3-14 years). The compliance of RIC was 95.6 ± 3.7%, and no associated severe adverse events happened. The annual risk of ischemic stroke and ischemic cerebrovascular events was 2.4% and 3.3%, respectively. The cumulative probabilities of ischemic cerebrovascular events and major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events were 32.8% and 44.8% at 14 years, respectively.

CONCLUSION

In patients with symptomatic ICA or MCA occlusion with impaired hemodynamics, chronic RIC is well-tolerated, and it appears to be associated with a low annual risk of ischemic stroke and cardio-cerebrovascular events.

Timing is everything: Exercise therapy and remote ischemic conditioning for acute ischemic stroke patients

Physical exercise is a promising rehabilitative strategy for acute ischemic stroke. Preclinical trials suggest that exercise restores cerebral blood circulation and re-establishes the blood–brain barrier’s integrity with neurological function and motor skill improvement. Clinical trials demonstrated that exercise improves prognosis and decreases complications after ischemic events. Due to these encouraging findings, early exercise rehabilitation has been quickly adopted into stroke rehabilitation guidelines. Unfortunately, preclinical trials have failed to warn us of an adverse effect. Trials with very early exercise rehabilitation (within 24 h of ischemic attack) found an inferior prognosis at 3 months. It was not immediately clear as to why exercise was detrimental when performed very early while it was ameliorative just a few short days later. This review aimed to explore the potential mechanisms of harm seen in very early exercise administered to acute ischemic stroke patients. To begin, the mechanisms of exercise’s benefit were transposed onto the current understanding of acute ischemic stroke’s pathogenesis, specifically during the acute and subacute phases. Then, exercise rehabilitation’s mechanisms were compared to that of remote ischemic conditioning (RIC). This comparison may reveal how RIC may be providing clinical benefit during the acute phase of ischemic stroke when exercise proved to be harmful.

Therapeutic Potential of Remote Ischemic Conditioning in Vascular Cognitive Impairment

Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) is a heterogeneous disease caused by a variety of cerebrovascular diseases. Patients with VCI often present with slower cognitive processing speed and poor executive function, which affects their independence in daily life, thus increasing social burden. Remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) is a non-invasive and efficient intervention that triggers endogenous protective mechanisms to generate neuroprotection. Over the past decades, evidence from basic and clinical research has shown that RIC is promising for the treatment of VCI. To further our understanding of RIC and improve the management of VCI, we summarize the evidence on the therapeutic potential of RIC in relation to the risk factors and pathobiologies of VCI, including reducing the risk of recurrent stroke, decreasing high blood pressure, improving cerebral blood flow, restoring white matter integrity, protecting the neurovascular unit, attenuating oxidative stress, and inhibiting the inflammatory response.

Repeated remote ischaemic preconditioning can prevent acute mountain sickness after rapid ascent to a high altitude

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to assess the effectiveness of 4 different remote ischaemic preconditioning (RIPC) protocols varying in duration and frequency for preventing acute mountain sickness (AMS). Methods: The participants in the four RIPC groups received different RIPC treatments in the arms at a low altitude; the control group did not receive a specific sham treatment. The participants were then flown to a High Altitude (3650 m). The primary outcome was the incidence and severity of AMS evaluated by the Lake Louise score (LLS) after arrival; vital signs were collected simultaneously. We performed an intention-to-treat analysis. Results: A total of 250 participants were included with 50 participants in each group. The total AMS incidence in all participants was 26.4%. A total of 20 AMS cases (40%) occurred in the control group, whereas 15 AMS cases (30%) occurred both in the RIPC A and RIPC B groups (relative risk 1.3; 95% confidence interval 0.8 - 2.3; χ2 = 1.099; p = 0.29), and 8 AMS cases (16%) occurred both in the RIPC C and D groups (RR 2.5; 95% CI 1.2 - 5.2; χ2 = 7.143, p < 0.01), with significantly lower LLSs in the RIPC C and D groups (F = 6.51, p <0.001). Conclusion: This study demonstrated that a four-week RIPC intervention but not a one-week regimen reduced AMS incidence and severity; however, a placebo effect might have contributed to the results of this study.

METHODS

The participants in the four RIPC groups received different RIPC treatments in the arms at a low altitude; the control group did not receive a specific sham treatment. The participants were then flown to a High Altitude (3650 m). The primary outcome was the incidence and severity of AMS evaluated by the Lake Louise score (LLS) after arrival; vital signs were collected simultaneously. We performed an intention-to-treat analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 250 participants were included with 50 participants in each group. The total AMS incidence in all participants was 26.4%. A total of 20 AMS cases (40%) occurred in the control group after arrival at high altitude, whereas 15 AMS cases (30%) occurred both in the RIPC A and RIPC B groups (relative risk 1.3; 95% confidence interval 0.8 - 2.3; χ²= 1.099; p = 0.29), and 8 AMS cases (16%) occurred both in the RIPC C and D groups (RR 2.5; 95% CI 1.2 - 5.2; χ²= 7.143, p < 0.01), with significantly lower LLSs in the RIPC C and D groups (F = 6.51, p <0.001).

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that a four-week RIPC intervention but not a one-week regimen reduced AMS incidence and severity; however, a placebo effect might have contributed to the results of this study.

Remote Ischemic Conditioning With Exercise (RICE)-Rehabilitative Strategy in Patients With Acute Ischemic Stroke: Rationale, Design, and Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Study

Objective: Exercise rehabilitation is an effective therapy in reducing the disability rate after stroke and should be carried out as early as possible. However, very early rehabilitation exercise exacerbates brain injury and is difficult to conduct in stroke patients due to their weakened and potentially disabled state. It is valuable to explore additional early rehabilitation strategies. Remote Ischemic Conditioning (RIC) is a novel therapy designed to protect vital organs from severe lethal ischemic injury by transient sublethal blood flow to non-vital organs, including the distal limbs, in order to induce endogenous protection. RIC has previously been conducted post-stroke for neuroprotection. However, whether combined early RIC and exercise (RICE) therapy enhances stroke rehabilitation remains to be determined.

Methods: This is a single-center, double-blinded, randomized controlled trial that will enroll acute ischemic stroke patients within 24 h of symptom onset or symptom exacerbation. All enrolled patients will be randomly assigned to either the RICE group (exercise with RIC) or the control group (exercise with sham RIC) at a ratio of 1:1, with 20 patients in each group. Both groups will receive RIC or sham RIC within 24 h after stroke onset or symptom exacerbation, once a day, for 14 days. All patients will begin exercise training on the fourth day, twice a day, for 11 days. Their neurological function [Modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score, National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score, Barthel Index, and walking ability], infarct volume (nuclear magnetic resonance, MRI), and adverse events will be evaluated at different time points in their post-stroke care.

Results: The primary outcome is safety, measured by the incidence of any serious RICE-related adverse events and decreased adverse events during hospitalization. The secondary outcome is a favorable prognosis within 90 days (mRS score < 2), determined by improvements in the mRS score, NIHSS score, Barthel Index, walking ability after 90 days, and infarct volume after 12 ± 2 days.

Conclusion: This study is a prospective randomized controlled trial to determine the rehabilitative effect of early RIC followed by exercise on patients with acute ischemic stroke.

Trial Registration:www.chictr.org.cn, identifier: ChiCTR2000041042

Remote ischaemic conditioning for stroke: unanswered questions and future directions

Remote ischaemic conditioning (RIC) refers to a process whereby periods of intermittent ischaemia, typically via the cyclical application of a blood pressure cuff to a limb at above systolic pressure, confers systemic protection against ischaemia in spatially distinct vascular territories. The mechanisms underlying this have not been characterised fully but have been shown to involve neural, hormonal and systemic inflammatory signalling cascades. Preclinical and early clinical studies have been promising and suggest beneficial effects of RIC in acute ischaemic stroke, symptomatic intracranial stenosis and vascular cognitive impairment. Through systematic searches of several clinical trials databases we identified 48 active clinical trials of RIC in ischaemic stroke, intracerebral haemorrhage and subarachnoid haemorrhage. We summarise the different RIC protocols and outcome measures studied in ongoing clinical trials and highlight which studies are most likely to elucidate the underlying biological mechanisms of RIC and characterise its efficacy in the near future. We discuss the uncertainties of RIC including the optimal frequency and duration of therapy, target patient groups, cost-effectiveness, the confounding impact of medications and the absence of a clinically meaningful biomarker of the conditioning response. With several large clinical trials of RIC expected to report their outcomes within the next 2 years, this review aims to highlight the most important studies and unanswered questions that will need to be addressed before this potentially widely accessible and low-cost intervention can be used in clinical practice.

Neuroprotective Effects of Exercise Postconditioning After Stroke via SIRT1-Mediated Suppression of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Stress

While it is well-known that pre-stroke exercise conditioning reduces the incidence of stroke and the development of comorbidities, it is unclear whether post-stroke exercise conditioning is also neuroprotective. The present study investigated whether exercise postconditioning (PostE) induced neuroprotection and elucidated the involvement of SIRT1 regulation on the ROS/ER stress pathway. Adult rats were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) followed by either: (1) resting; (2) mild exercise postconditioning (MPostE); or (3) intense exercise postconditioning (IPostE). PostE was initiated 24 h after reperfusion and performed on a treadmill. At 1 and 3 days thereafter, we determined infarct volumes, neurological defects, brain edema, apoptotic cell death through measuring pro- (BAX and Caspase-3) and anti-apoptotic (Bcl-2) proteins, and ER stress through the measurement of glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), inositol-requiring 1α (IRE1α), protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK), activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6), C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP), Caspase-12, and SIRT1. Proteins were measured by Western blot. ROS production was detected by flow cytometry.Compared to resting rats, both MPostE and IPostE significantly decreased brain infarct volumes and edema, neurological deficits, ROS production, and apoptotic cell death. MPostE further increased Bcl-2 expression and Bcl-2/BAX ratio as well as BAX and Caspase-3 expressions and ROS production (*p < 0.05). Both PostE groups saw decreases in ER stress proteins, while MPostE demonstrated a further reduction in GRP78 (***p < 0.001) and Caspase-12 (*p < 0.05) expressions at 1 day and IRE1α (**p < 0.01) and CHOP (*p < 0.05) expressions at 3 days. Additionally, both PostE groups saw significant increases in SIRT1 expression.In this study, both mild and intense PostE levels induced neuroprotection after stroke through SIRT1 and ROS/ER stress pathway. Additionally, the results may provide a base for our future study regarding the regulation of SIRT1 on the ROS/ER stress pathway in the biochemical processes underlying post-stroke neuroprotection. The results suggest that mild exercise postconditioning might play a similar neuroprotective role as intensive exercise and could be an effective exercise strategy as well.

Ischemic Conditioning Ameliorated Hypertension and Vascular Remodeling of Spontaneously Hypertensive Rat via Inflammatory Regulation

Vascular remodeling is an initial step in the development of hypertension. Limb remote ischemic conditioning (LRIC) is a physiological treatment that induces endogenous protective effect during acute ischemic injury. However, the impact of long-term LRIC on hypertension, a chronic disease, is unknown. In this study, we aimed to investigate the LRIC effect on blood pressure and vascular remodeling in spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) model and patients with prehypertension and early-stage hypertension. LRIC of rats was performed once a day for 6-weeks. Blood pressure, vascular remodeling (cross-sectional area, extracellular deposition, and smooth muscle cell area), inflammation (inflammatory factors, and inflammatory cells) were compared among normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY), WKY RIC group, SHR control group, and SHR RIC. Long-term LRCI treatment (twice a day for 4-weeks) was performed on patients with prehypertension or early-stage hypertension. Blood pressure and pulse wave velocity (PWV) were analyzed before and after LRIC treatment. LRIC treatment decreased blood pressure in SHR (n = 9-10). LRIC ameliorated vascular remodeling by decreasing cross-sectional area, suppressing deposition of the extracellular matrix, and hypertrophy of smooth muscle cell in conduit artery and small resistance artery (n = 7). LRIC decreased proinflammatory factors while increasing the anti-inflammatory factors in the circulation (n = 5). LRIC decreased circulating monocyte and natural killer T-cell levels (n = 5). Furthermore, LRIC treatment decreased blood pressure and improved vascular stiffness in patients (n = 20). In conclusion, long term LRIC could decrease blood pressure and ameliorate vascular remodeling via inflammation regulation. LRIC could be a preventive treatment for people with blood pressure elevation or prehypertension.

Remote ischemic conditioning: A potential therapeutic strategy of type 2 diabetes

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is one of the major public diseases which is characterized by peripheral insulin resistance (IR) and progressive pancreatic β-cell failure. While in the past few years, some new factors, such as inflammation, oxidative stress, immune responses and other potential pathways, have been identified to play critical roles in T2D, and thereby provide novel promising targets for the treatment of T2D. Remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) is a non-invasive and convenient operation performed by transient, repeated ischemia in distant place. Nowadays, RIC has been established as a potentially powerful therapeutic tool for many diseases, especially in I/R injuries. Through activating a series of neural, humoral and immune pathways, it can release multiple protective signals, which then regulating inflammation, oxidative stress, immune response and so on. Interestingly, several recent studies have discovered that the beneficial effects of RIC on I/R injuries might be abolished by T2D, wherein the higher basal levels of inflammation and oxidative stress, dysregulation of immune system and some potential pathways secondary to hyperglycemia may play critical roles. In contrast, a higher intensity of conditioning could restore the protective effects. Based on the overlapped mechanisms RIC and T2D performs, we provide a hypothesis that RIC may also play a protective role in T2D via targeting these signaling pathways.

Remote Ischemic Conditioning Improves Attention Network Function and Blood Oxygen Levels in Unacclimatized Adults Exposed to High Altitude

Remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) confers protection on major organs from hypoxic/ischemic injuries; however, its impacts on attention network function and blood oxygen levels in unacclimatized adults exposed to high altitudes have yet to be elucidated. In this study, we recruited 120 healthy male volunteers, of which one was exposed to high altitude and the other was exposed to low altitude. The two cohorts were further divided into RIC and sham control groups. The attentional network test (ANT) was performed to evaluate cognitive function before and after RIC treatment. Other outcomes such as heart rate, blood pressure, blood oxygen saturation, cerebral tissue oxygenation index (CTOI), and cerebrovascular hemodynamic indices were also evaluated. Prior to RIC treatment, there were no significant differences in orienting or executive function between the treatment and control arms of either cohort. Alerting function was significantly lower in the high-altitude cohort than in the low-altitude cohort. There were significant reductions in both blood oxygen and CTOI in the high-altitude cohort relative to the low-altitude cohort, while the pulse index (PI) of the former cohort was significantly increased. After RIC treatment, there was a significant difference in alerting function between the high-altitude RIC group and its associated control. The CTOI of the treatment group increased from 60.39±3.40% to 62.78±4.40%, and blood oxygenation also improved. Furthermore, this group showed a significant reduction in its PI. Exposure to high-altitude environments had a significant impact on alerting function, blood oxygen, CTOI, and PI. RIC ameliorated changes in attentional function, as well as blood oxygen and CTOI, suggesting that it potentially alters cerebrovascular compliance upon exposure to high altitude.

Remote ischemic conditioning for stroke: clinical data, challenges, and future directions

Despite great improvement during the past several decades, the management of stroke is still far from satisfactory, which warrants alternative or adjunctive strategies. Remote ischemic conditioning (RIC), an easy‐to‐use and noninvasive therapy, can be performed in various clinical scenarios (e.g., prehospital transportation, intrahospital, and at home), and it has been widely investigated for stroke management. RIC has been demonstrated to be well tolerated in patients with acute ischemic stroke and aneurysm subarachnoid hemorrhage, and it may benefit these patients by improving clinical outcomes; in patients with intracranial atherosclerosis, long‐term repeated RIC could be safely performed and benefit patients by reducing recurrent ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack, as well as improving cerebral perfusion status; long‐term repeated RIC may also benefit patients with cerebral small vessel disease by slowing cognitive decline and reducing volume of white matter hyperintensities on brain MRI; in patients with severe carotid atherosclerotic stenosis undergoing stenting, preprocedural RIC could reduce the odds of new brain lesions on postprocedural MRI. Previous clinical studies suggest broad future prospects of RIC in the field of cerebrovascular diseases. However, the optimal RIC protocol and the mechanisms that RIC protects the brain is not fully clear, and there is lack of sensitive and specific biomarkers of RIC, all these dilemmas prevent RIC from entering clinical practice. This review focuses on recent advances in clinical studies of RIC in stroke management, its challenges, and the potential directions of future studies.