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Zhang Z, Yao S, Hu Y, Zhao X, Lee RJ. Application of lipid-based nanoparticles in cancer immunotherapy. Front Immunol 2022; 13:967505. [PMID: 36003395 PMCID: PMC9393708 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.967505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy is revolutionizing the clinical management of patients with different cancer types by sensitizing autologous or allogenic immune cells to the tumor microenvironment which eventually leads to tumor cell lysis without rapidly killing normal cells. Although immunotherapy has been widely demonstrated to be superior to chemotherapies, only a few populations of patients with specific cancer types respond to such treatment due to the failure of systemic immune activation. In addition, severe immune-related adverse events are rapidly observed when patients with very few responses are given higher doses of such therapies. Recent advances of lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) development have made it possible to deliver not only small molecules but also mRNAs to achieve systemic anticancer immunity through cytotoxic immune cell activation, checkpoint blockade, and chimeric antigen receptor cell therapies, etc. This review summarized recent development and applications of LNPs in anticancer immunotherapy. The diversity of lipid-based NPs would encapsulate payloads with different structures and molecular weights to achieve optimal antitumor immunity through multiple mechanisms of action. The discussion about the components of lipid-based NPs and their immunologic payloads in this review hopefully shed more light on the future direction of anticancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongkun Zhang
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Siyu Yao
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Yingwen Hu
- The Whiteoak Group, Inc., Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Xiaobin Zhao
- The Whiteoak Group, Inc., Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Robert J. Lee
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
- *Correspondence: Robert J. Lee,
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Zou CY, Guan GF, Zhu C, Liu TQ, Guo Q, Cheng W, Wu AH. Costimulatory checkpoint SLAMF8 is an independent prognosis factor in glioma. CNS Neurosci Ther 2018; 25:333-342. [PMID: 30105842 DOI: 10.1111/cns.13041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Revised: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Immune checkpoint blockade has made breakthroughs in immunotherapy for glioma. However, current immunotherapy has therapeutic benefits only in a subset of patients and accompanied by immune-related side effects. SLAMF8 is a costimulatory molecule that affects the activation of macrophages in inflammation. The study of SLAMF8 may provide new information for immunological research and treatment of glioma. METHODS CGGA and TCGA cohorts of 946 patients with RNA sequencing data and full clinical information were analyzed using R language and GraphPad Prism 7. RESULTS SLAMF8 was overexpressed along with malignancy progression and was a biomarker of mesenchymal subtype. As an independent prognostic factor, high SLAMF8 conferred reduced overall survival and chemotherapy resistance. SLAMF8 implied lower proportion of cancer cells along with increasing enrichment of monocytic lineage, myeloid dendritic cells. Functional analysis showed higher SLAMF8 indicated activation of antigen processing and presenting and the IFN-γ/TNF/TLR-mediated signaling. Meanwhile, coexpressing with classical checkpoint SLAMF8 aggravated immunosuppression and enhanced inflammation response. CONCLUSION Our study highlighted the important role of SLAMF8 in malignancy progression, shortened survival, and immune disorders. Further research on SLAMF8 in immunosuppression and inflammation response to glioma cells could aid immunotherapy for glioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cun-Yi Zou
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Ge-Fei Guan
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Chen Zhu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Tian-Qi Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Qing Guo
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Wen Cheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - An-Hua Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
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Byun JW, Lee HS, Song SU, Lee SW, Kim SK, Kim WC, Lee MH, Choi GS. Combined treatment of murine fibrosarcoma with chemotherapy (Paclitaxel), radiotherapy, and intratumoral injection of dendritic cells. Ann Dermatol 2014; 26:53-60. [PMID: 24648686 PMCID: PMC3956795 DOI: 10.5021/ad.2014.26.1.53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2012] [Revised: 12/12/2012] [Accepted: 01/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background New antitumor therapeutic strategies aim to combine different approaches that are able to induce tumor-specific effector and memory T cell responses that might control tumor growth. Dendritic cells (DCs) have the capacity to induce antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes. We have previously shown that the combined treatment of paclitaxel chemotherapy (Chemo) and injection of DCs led to complete tumor regression. Objective The goal of this study was to evaluate synergistic antitumor effect of a triple combination treatment comprising radiotherapy, paclitaxel Chemo and intratumoral injection of syngeneic bone marrow-derived DCs on murine fibrosarcoma, compared to other single or double combination treatments. Methods For the murine fibrosarcoma model, naïve C57BL/6 mice were inoculated intradermally with 2×103 MCA102 cells in the right upper flank. Mice were assigned to five groups (untreatedcontrol, RT alone, RT+Chemo, RT+DC, and RT+Chemo+DC), with eight mice in each group. In vitro cytotoxicity assays were performed to assess the immune activity. The persistence of tumor-specific immunity was determined by second tumor challenge in mice with complete tumor regression. Results The triple combination treatment showed a significantly enhanced therapeutic efficacy by decreasing tumor size and inducing complete tumor regression, resulting in a cure of 50% of mice. The results of in vitro cytotoxicity assays and the second tumor challenge experiment strongly indicated the induction of a tumor-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte response and acquisition of prolonged tumor immunity. Conclusion These findings suggest that the triple combination treatment can be a promising strategy for the treatment of murine fibrosarcoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Won Byun
- Department of Dermatology, Inha University School of Medicine, Incheon, Korea
| | - Hyeon-Sook Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Inha University School of Medicine, Incheon, Korea
| | - Sun-Uk Song
- Clinical Research Center, Inha University School of Medicine, Incheon, Korea
| | | | - Soon-Ki Kim
- Clinical Research Center, Inha University School of Medicine, Incheon, Korea
| | - Woo-Chul Kim
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Inha University School of Medicine, Incheon, Korea
| | - Moon-Hee Lee
- Department of Hemato-Oncology, Inha University School of Medicine, Incheon, Korea
| | - Gwang-Seong Choi
- Department of Dermatology, Inha University School of Medicine, Incheon, Korea
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Wen CC, Chen HM, Chen SS, Huang LT, Chang WT, Wei WC, Chou LC, Arulselvan P, Wu JB, Kuo SC, Yang NS. Specific microtubule-depolymerizing agents augment efficacy of dendritic cell-based cancer vaccines. J Biomed Sci 2011; 18:44. [PMID: 21689407 PMCID: PMC3141632 DOI: 10.1186/1423-0127-18-44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2011] [Accepted: 06/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are associated with immunogenic cell death and have the ability to enhance maturation and antigen presentation of dendritic cells (DCs). Specific microtubule-depolymerizing agents (MDAs) such as colchicine have been shown to confer anti-cancer activity and also trigger activation of DCs. Methods In this study, we evaluated the ability of three MDAs (colchicine and two 2-phenyl-4-quinolone analogues) to induce immunogenic cell death in test tumor cells, activate DCs, and augment T-cell proliferation activity. These MDAs were further evaluated for use as an adjuvant in a tumor cell lysate-pulsed DC vaccine. Results The three test phytochemicals considerably increased the expression of DAMPs including HSP70, HSP90 and HMGB1, but had no effect on expression of calreticulin (CRT). DC vaccines pulsed with MDA-treated tumor cell lysates had a significant effect on tumor growth, showed cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity against tumors, and increased the survival rate of test mice. In vivo antibody depletion experiments suggested that CD8+ and NK cells, but not CD4+ cells, were the main effector cells responsible for the observed anti-tumor activity. In addition, culture of DCs with GM-CSF and IL-4 during the pulsing and stimulation period significantly increased the production of IL-12 and decreased production of IL-10. MDAs also induced phenotypic maturation of DCs and augmented CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell proliferation when co-cultured with DCs. Conclusions Specific MDAs including the clinical drug, colchicine, can induce immunogenic cell death in tumor cells, and DCs pulsed with MDA-treated tumor cell lysates (TCLs) can generate potent anti-tumor immunity in mice. This approach may warrant future clinical evaluation as a cancer vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Chun Wen
- Graduate Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
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Intratumoral dendritic cells and chemoradiation for the treatment of murine squamous cell carcinoma. J Immunother 2009; 31:885-95. [PMID: 18832999 DOI: 10.1097/cji.0b013e3181880f1e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells are potent antigen-presenting cells that have been shown to have significant antitumor effects in vitro and in vivo. However, the therapeutic efficacy of dendritic cells as an immunotherapeutic treatment has been limited by both immunologic tolerance and active immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment. To address this problem, we examined the ability of concurrent systemic chemotherapy and local, fractionated radiation to augment intratumoral dendritic cell injections in a mouse model of squamous cell carcinoma. Intratumoral injections of dendritic cells alone did not have a significant antitumor effect in mice with squamous cell carcinoma flank tumors, but the addition of chemoradiation resulted in significant tumor regression. Concurrent chemoradiation alone resulted in slower tumor growth, but no complete tumor regressions. The combination of chemoradiation and intratumoral dendritic cell injections resulted in improved survival and complete tumor regression in 30% mice. Mice with complete tumor regression were partially resistant to the repeat challenge with relevant tumor 60 days after treatment. These findings were partially dependent on the presence of CD4 T cells, CD8 T cells, and natural killer cells. Chemoradiation may augment intratumoral dendritic cell injections through increased intratumoral apoptosis and decreased intratumoral regulatory T cells. This work suggests a possible role for the use of intratumoral dendritic cell therapy with more traditional chemoradiation strategies.
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Kaneno R, Shurin GV, Tourkova IL, Shurin MR. Chemomodulation of human dendritic cell function by antineoplastic agents in low noncytotoxic concentrations. J Transl Med 2009; 7:58. [PMID: 19591684 PMCID: PMC2716306 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-7-58] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2009] [Accepted: 07/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The dose-delivery schedule of conventional chemotherapy, which determines its efficacy and toxicity, is based on the maximum tolerated dose. This strategy has lead to cure and disease control in a significant number of patients but is associated with significant short-term and long-term toxicity. Recent data demonstrate that moderately low-dose chemotherapy may be efficiently combined with immunotherapy, particularly with dendritic cell (DC) vaccines, to improve the overall therapeutic efficacy. However, the direct effects of low and ultra-low concentrations on DCs are still unknown. Here we characterized the effects of low noncytotoxic concentrations of different classes of chemotherapeutic agents on human DCs in vitro. DCs treated with antimicrotubule agents vincristine, vinblastine, and paclitaxel or with antimetabolites 5-aza-2-deoxycytidine and methotrexate, showed increased expression of CD83 and CD40 molecules. Expression of CD80 on DCs was also stimulated by vinblastine, paclitaxel, azacytidine, methotrexate, and mitomycin C used in low nontoxic concentrations. Furthermore, 5-aza-2-deoxycytidine, methotrexate, and mitomycin C increased the ability of human DCs to stimulate proliferation of allogeneic T lymphocytes. Thus, our data demonstrate for the first time that in low noncytotoxic concentrations chemotherapeutic agents do not induce apoptosis of DCs, but directly enhance DC maturation and function. This suggests that modulation of human DCs by noncytotoxic concentrations of antineoplastic drugs, i.e. chemomodulation, might represent a novel approach for up-regulation of functional activity of resident DCs in the tumor microenvironment or improving the efficacy of DCs prepared ex vivo for subsequent vaccinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramon Kaneno
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University, Botucatu, SP, Brazil.
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Shurin GV, Tourkova IL, Kaneno R, Shurin MR. Chemotherapeutic agents in noncytotoxic concentrations increase antigen presentation by dendritic cells via an IL-12-dependent mechanism. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 183:137-44. [PMID: 19535620 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0900734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Antineoplastic chemotherapeutic agents may indirectly activate dendritic cells (DCs) by inducing the release of "danger" signals from dying tumor cells. Whereas the direct cytotoxic or inhibitory effect of conventional chemotherapy on DCs has been reported, modulation of DC function by chemotherapeutic agents in low noncytotoxic concentrations has not yet been investigated. We have tested the effects of different classes of antineoplastic chemotherapeutic agents used in low noncytotoxic concentrations on the Ag-presenting function of DCs. We revealed that paclitaxel, doxorubicin, mitomycin C, and methotrexate up-regulated the ability of DCs to present Ags to Ag-specific T cells. Stimulation of DC function was associated with the up-regulation of expression of Ag-processing machinery components and costimulatory molecules on DCs, as well as increased IL-12p70 expression. However, the ability of DCs treated with paclitaxel, methotrexate, doxorubicin, and vinblastine to increase Ag presentation to Ag-specific T cells was abolished in DCs generated from IL-12 knockout mice, indicating that up-regulation of Ag presentation by DCs is IL-12-dependent and mediated by the autocrine or paracrine mechanisms. At the same time, IL-12 knockout and wild-type DCs demonstrated similar capacity to up-regulate OVA presentation after their pretreatment with low concentrations of mitomycin C and vincristine, suggesting that these agents do not utilize IL-12-mediated pathways in DCs for stimulating Ag presentation. These findings reveal a new mechanism of immunopotentiating activity of chemotherapeutic agents-a direct immunostimulatory effect on DCs (chemomodulation)-and thus provide a strong rationale for further assessment of low-dose chemotherapy given with DC vaccines for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galina V Shurin
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, PA 15213, USA.
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Zhong H, Han B, Tourkova IL, Lokshin A, Rosenbloom A, Shurin MR, Shurin GV. Low-dose paclitaxel prior to intratumoral dendritic cell vaccine modulates intratumoral cytokine network and lung cancer growth. Clin Cancer Res 2007; 13:5455-62. [PMID: 17875775 PMCID: PMC2474691 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-07-0517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The main goal of this study was to provide the "proof-of-principle" that low-dose paclitaxel is able to change the tumor microenvironment and improve the outcome of intratumoral dendritic cell vaccine in a murine lung cancer model. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We evaluated the antitumor potential and changes in the intratumoral milieu of a combination of low-dose chemotherapy and dendritic cell vaccine in the Lewis lung carcinoma model in vivo. RESULTS The low-dose paclitaxel, which induced apoptosis in approximately 10% of tumor cells, was not toxic to bone marrow cells and dendritic cells and stimulated dendritic cell maturation and function in vitro. Although tumor cells inhibited dendritic cell differentiation in vitro, this immunosuppressive effect was abrogated by the pretreatment of tumor cells with low-dose paclitaxel. Based on these data, we next tested whether pretreatment of tumor-bearing mice with low-dose paclitaxel in vivo would improve the antitumor potential of dendritic cell vaccine administered intratumorally. Significant inhibition of tumor growth in mice treated with low-dose paclitaxel plus intratumoral dendritic cell vaccine, associated with increased tumor infiltration by CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells and elevated tumor-specific IFN-gamma production by draining lymph node cells, was revealed. Using a novel intratumoral microdialysis technique and Luminex technology for collecting and characterizing soluble factors released within the tumor bed for several days in live freely moving animals, we showed that low-dose paclitaxel altered the cytokine network at the tumor site. CONCLUSIONS Our data indicate that low-dose chemotherapy before intratumoral delivery of dendritic cells might be associated with beneficial alterations of the intratumoral microenvironment and thus support antitumor immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Zhong
- Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Baohui Han
- Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | | | - Anna Lokshin
- Departments of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
| | - Alan Rosenbloom
- Molecular Biosensors and Imaging Center, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Received 3/5/07; revised 5/10/07; accepted 5/31/07
| | - Michael R. Shurin
- Departments of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
- Departments of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
| | - Galina V. Shurin
- Departments of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
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Choi GS, Lee MH, Kim SK, Kim CS, Lee HS, Im MW, Kil HY, Seong DH, Lee JR, Kim WC, Lee MG, Song SU. Combined treatment of an intratumoral injection of dendritic cells and systemic chemotherapy (Paclitaxel) for murine fibrosarcoma. Yonsei Med J 2005; 46:835-42. [PMID: 16385661 PMCID: PMC2810599 DOI: 10.3349/ymj.2005.46.6.835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel combined treatment of conventional chemotherapy with an intratumoral injection of syngeneic dendritic cells (DCs) has emerged as a potent cancer treatment strategy. In this study, we evaluated the synergistic effect of an intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of a chemotherapeutic drug, paclitaxel, and an intratumoral (i.t.) injection of syngeneic bone marrow-derived DCs for the treatment of pre-existing fibrosarcoma. Subcutaneous tumors were established using MCA102 fibrosarcoma cells in syngeneic C57BL/6 mice. The results demonstrated that the combined treatment of paclitaxel chemotherapy and the injection of DCs led to complete tumor regression, in contrast to only partial eradication of the tumors with chemotherapy or DCs alone. Furthermore, the tumor-free mice were able to resist a repeat challenge with the same type of tumor. These findings suggest that a combination therapy of systemic chemotherapy along with the intratumoral administration of DCs is a potent treatment strategy for fibrosarcoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwang-Seong Choi
- Department of Dermatology, Inha University College of Medicine, Inchon, Korea
| | - Moon-Hee Lee
- Department of Hematology-Oncology, Inha University College of Medicine, Inchon, Korea
| | - Soon-Ki Kim
- Clinical Research Center, Inha University College of Medicine, Inchon, Korea
| | - Chul-Soo Kim
- Department of Hematology-Oncology, Inha University College of Medicine, Inchon, Korea
| | - Hong-Sik Lee
- Clinical Research Center, Inha University College of Medicine, Inchon, Korea
| | - Moon-Whan Im
- Clinical Research Center, Inha University College of Medicine, Inchon, Korea
| | - Hye-Yun Kil
- Clinical Research Center, Inha University College of Medicine, Inchon, Korea
| | - Do-Hwan Seong
- Clinical Research Center, Inha University College of Medicine, Inchon, Korea
| | - Jong-Rok Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Inha University College of Medicine, Inchon, Korea
| | - Woo-Chul Kim
- Clinical Research Center, Inha University College of Medicine, Inchon, Korea
| | - Min-Geol Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sun U. Song
- Clinical Research Center, Inha University College of Medicine, Inchon, Korea
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Lee HW, Kim BS, Kim HJ, Lee CW, Yoo HJ, Kim JB, Yoon S. Upregulation of receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB ligand expression in the thymic subcapsular, paraseptal, perivascular, and medullary epithelial cells during thymus regeneration. Histochem Cell Biol 2005; 123:491-500. [PMID: 15844004 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-005-0751-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/07/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The receptor activator of nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB ligand (RANKL; also termed TRANCE/OPGL/ODF/TNFSF11), a new member of the tumor-necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily, was identified as a key cytokine involved in the differentiation of the immune system and the regulation of immunity as well as in bone metabolism. In particular, RANKL-deficient mice showed defects in the early differentiation of T lymphocytes, suggesting that RANKL is a novel regulator of early thymocyte development. Here, we describe the expression of RANKL during regeneration following acute involution induced by cyclophosphamide in the rat thymus. The present study demonstrates the presence and upregulated expression of the RANKL in thymic subcapsular, paraseptal, perivascular, and medullary epithelial cells during thymus regeneration. Our results suggest that the RANKL expressed in these thymic epithelial cells plays a role in the development of T cells during thymic regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee-Woo Lee
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Pusan National University, 1-10 Ami-Dong, Seo-Gu, 602-739 Busan, South Korea
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Crittenden MR, Thanarajasingam U, Vile RG, Gough MJ. Intratumoral immunotherapy: using the tumour against itself. Immunology 2005; 114:11-22. [PMID: 15606790 PMCID: PMC1782057 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2004.02001.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2004] [Revised: 09/16/2004] [Accepted: 09/17/2004] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Summary Diverse immunotherapy approaches have achieved success in controlling individual aspects of immune responses in animal models. Transfer of such immunotherapies to clinical trials has obtained some success in patients, with clinical responses observed or effective antigen specific immune responses achieved, but has had limited impact on patient survival. Key elements required to generate de novo cell-mediated antitumour immune responses in vivo include recruitment of antigen-presenting cells to the tumour site, loading these cells with antigen, and their migration and maturation to full antigen-presenting function. In addition, it is essential for antigen-specific T cells to locate the tumour to mediate cytotoxicity, emphasizing the need for local inflammation to target effector cell recruitment. We review those therapies that involve the tumour site as a target and source of antigen for the initiation of immune responses, and discuss strategies to generate and co-ordinate an optimal cell-mediated immune response to control tumours locally.
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