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Song Y, Guo L, Jiang X, Dong M, Xiang D, Wen M, He S, Yuan Y, Lin F, Zhao G, Liu L, Liao J. Meglumine cyclic adenylate improves cardiovascular hemodynamics and motor-function in a rat model of acute T4 thoracic spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2023; 61:422-429. [PMID: 37402893 DOI: 10.1038/s41393-023-00909-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023]
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN Animal experimental study. OBJECTIVES Spinal cord injury (SCI) at or above the T6 level causes cardiovascular dysfunction. Maintaining cAMP levels with cAMP analogs can facilitate neurological recovery. In the present study, the effects of meglumine cyclic adenylate (MCA), a cAMP analog and approved cardiovascular drug, on cardiovascular and neurological recovery in acute T4-SCI in rats were investigated. SETTING Hospital in Kunming, China. METHODS Eighty rats were randomly allocated to five groups, and groups A-D received SCI: (A) a group administered MCA at 2 mg/kg/d iv qd, (B) a group administered dopamine at 2.5 to 5 μg/kg/min iv to maintain mean arterial pressure above 85 mm Hg, (C) a group administered atropine at 1 mg/kg iv bid, (D) a group receiving an equal volume of saline iv qd for 3 weeks after SCI and (E) a group undergoing laminectomy only. The cardiovascular and behavioral parameters of the rats were examined, and spinal cord tissues were processed for hematoxylin and eosin staining, Nissl staining, electron microscopy, and analysis of cAMP levels. RESULTS Compared with dopamine or atropine, MCA significantly reversed the decrease in cAMP levels in both myocardial cells and the injured spinal cord; improved hypotension, bradycardia and behavioral parameters at 6 weeks; and improved spinal cord blood flow and histological structure at 7 days post-SCI. The regression analysis suggested spinal cord motor-function improved as decreased heart rate and mean arterial pressure were stopped post-SCI. CONCLUSIONS MCA may be an effective treatment for acute SCI by sustaining cAMP-dependent reparative processes and improving post-SCI cardiovascular dysfunction. SPONSORSHIP N/A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueming Song
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Limin Guo
- Orthopedic-Traumatology Department, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China
| | - Xingxiong Jiang
- Orthopedic-Traumatology Department, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China
| | - Minglin Dong
- Orthopedic-Traumatology Department, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China
| | - Dong Xiang
- Orthopedic-Traumatology Department, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China
| | - Ming Wen
- Orthopedic-Traumatology Department, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China
| | - Shaoxuan He
- Orthopedic-Traumatology Department, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China
| | - Yong Yuan
- Orthopedic-Traumatology Department, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China
| | - Feng Lin
- Orthopedic-Traumatology Department, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China
| | - Gang Zhao
- Orthopedic-Traumatology Department, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China
| | - Luping Liu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China
| | - Jingwu Liao
- Orthopedic-Traumatology Department, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650101, Yunnan, China.
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Vinit S, Michel-Flutot P, Mansart A, Fayssoil A. Effects of C2 hemisection on respiratory and cardiovascular functions in rats. Neural Regen Res 2023; 18:428-433. [PMID: 35900441 PMCID: PMC9396504 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.346469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
High cervical spinal cord injuries induce permanent neuromotor and autonomic deficits. These injuries impact both central respiratory and cardiovascular functions through modulation of the sympathetic nervous system. So far, cardiovascular studies have focused on models of complete contusion or transection at the lower cervical and thoracic levels and diaphragm activity evaluations using invasive methods. The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of C2 hemisection on different parameters representing vital functions (i.e., respiratory function, cardiovascular, and renal filtration parameters) at the moment of injury and 7 days post-injury in rats. No ventilatory parameters evaluated by plethysmography were impacted during quiet breathing after 7 days post-injury, whereas permanent diaphragm hemiplegia was observed by ultrasound and confirmed by diaphragmatic electromyography in anesthetized rats. Interestingly, the mean arterial pressure was reduced immediately after C2 hemisection, with complete compensation at 7 days post-injury. Renal filtration was unaffected at 7 days post-injury; however, remnant systolic dysfunction characterized by a reduced left ventricular ejection fraction persisted at 7 days post-injury. Taken together, these results demonstrated that following C2 hemisection, diaphragm activity and systolic function are impacted up to 7 days post-injury, whereas the respiratory and cardiovascular systems display vast adaptation to maintain ventilatory parameters and blood pressure homeostasis, with the latter likely sustained by the remaining descending sympathetic inputs spared by the initial injury. A better broad characterization of the physiopathology of high cervical spinal cord injuries covering a longer time period post-injury could be beneficial for understanding evaluations of putative therapeutics to further increase cardiorespiratory recovery.
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Liu Y, Liu Q, Yang Z, Li R, Huang Z, Huang Z, Liu J, Wu X, Lin J, Wu X, Zhu Q. Trihydroxyethyl Rutin Provides Neuroprotection in Rats With Cervical Spinal Cord Hemi-Contusion. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:759325. [PMID: 34867167 PMCID: PMC8637531 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.759325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: To investigate the neuroprotective effects of trihydroxyethyl rutin in rats with cervical spinal cord hemi-contusion. Methods: Adult male Sprague–Dawley rats were subjected to hemi-contusion at a stroke depth of 1.2 mm, and then intraperitoneally injected with 50 or 100 mg/kg trihydroxyethyl rutin per day for 12 weeks (T50 and T100 groups, respectively). Changes in somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs), motor evoked potentials (MEPs), and behavior were continuously monitored. At 12 weeks post-injury, immunohistochemical staining was performed to assess changes in cervical spinal cord microvascular morphology. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans were performed to examine end-stage injury in the cervical spinal cord, and Eriochrome cyanine-stained slices of spinal cord tissue were evaluated for injury. Results: There were no significant differences in biomechanical parameters among the spinal cord injury, T50 and T100 rat groups. At 3 days-post-injury, there was a significant decrease in grip strength. At 12 weeks post-injury, grip strength recovery was significantly better in the T50 and T100 groups than in the injury group. Compared with the injury group, the total limb placement frequency was significantly higher in the T50 group at 2, 4, 6, 10, and 12 weeks post-injury and in the T100 group at 2, 6, 8, and 10 weeks post-injury. Ipsilateral SEPs and MEPs were dynamic, increasing in latency and decreasing in amplitude in the injury compared with sham group. MRI scanning demonstrated that the coronal, sagittal, and transversal lesion areas were smaller in the T50 and T100 groups than in the injury group. Microvascular density showed a greater reduction in the injury group compared with the T50 and T100 groups. Eriochrome cyanine staining showed that the ipsilateral side, residual parenchyma, and gray matter areas were larger in the T50 and T100 groups than in the injury group. Conclusion: Trihydroxyethyl rutin exhibits robust neuroprotective effects, improving limb motor function and nerve electrophysiological parameters after spinal cord injury, maintaining microvascular density, and reducing the area of injury and degree of demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yapu Liu
- Division of Spinal Surgery, Department of Orthopaedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Spinal Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Luohe Medical College, Luohe, China
| | - Qi Liu
- Division of Spinal Surgery, Department of Orthopaedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhou Yang
- Division of Spinal Surgery, Department of Orthopaedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Rong Li
- Division of Spinal Surgery, Department of Orthopaedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhiping Huang
- Division of Spinal Surgery, Department of Orthopaedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zucheng Huang
- Division of Spinal Surgery, Department of Orthopaedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Junhao Liu
- Division of Spinal Surgery, Department of Orthopaedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiuhua Wu
- Division of Spinal Surgery, Department of Orthopaedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Junyu Lin
- Division of Spinal Surgery, Department of Orthopaedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoliang Wu
- Division of Spinal Surgery, Department of Orthopaedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qingan Zhu
- Division of Spinal Surgery, Department of Orthopaedics, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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Development of a Spinal Cord Injury Model Permissive to Study the Cardiovascular Effects of Rehabilitation Approaches Designed to Induce Neuroplasticity. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10101006. [PMID: 34681105 PMCID: PMC8533334 DOI: 10.3390/biology10101006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary People living with high-level spinal cord injury experience worse cardiovascular health than the general population. In most spinal cord injuries, there are some remaining functioning pathways leading from the brain through the spinal cord to the organs and muscles, but not enough to sustain normal levels of function. Recently, therapies that aim to increase the strength of connections in these remaining pathways have shown great potential in restoring walking, hand, and breathing function in the spinal cord injured population. In order to test these therapies for their effects on cardiovascular function, we developed a new type of spinal cord injury rat model that spares enough pathways for these therapies to act upon but still produces measurable reductions in heart and blood vessel function that can be targeted with interventions/treatments. Abstract As primary medical care for spinal cord injury (SCI) has improved over the last decades there are more individuals living with neurologically incomplete (vs. complete) cervical injuries. For these individuals, a number of promising therapies are being actively researched in pre-clinical settings that seek to strengthen the remaining spinal pathways with a view to improve motor function. To date, few, if any, of these interventions have been tested for their effectiveness to improve autonomic and cardiovascular (CV) function. As a first step to testing such therapies, we aimed to develop a model that has sufficient sparing of descending sympathetic pathways for these interventions to target yet induces robust CV impairment. Twenty-six Wistar rats were assigned to SCI (n = 13) or naïve (n = 13) groups. Animals were injured at the T3 spinal segment with 300 kdyn of force. Fourteen days post-SCI, left ventricular (LV) and arterial catheterization was performed to assess in vivo cardiac and hemodynamic function. Spinal cord lesion characteristics along with sparing in catecholaminergic and serotonergic projections were determined via immunohistochemistry. SCI produced a decrease in mean arterial pressure of 17 ± 3 mmHg (p < 0.001) and left ventricular contractility (end-systolic elastance) of 0.7 ± 0.1 mmHg/µL (p < 0.001). Our novel SCI model produced significant decreases in cardiac and hemodynamic function while preserving 33 ± 9% of white matter at the injury epicenter, which we believe makes it a useful pre-clinical model of SCI to study rehabilitation approaches designed to induce neuroplasticity.
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Lucci VEM, Harrison EL, DeVeau KM, Harman KA, Squair JW, Krassioukov A, Magnuson DSK, West CR, Claydon VE. Markers of susceptibility to cardiac arrhythmia in experimental spinal cord injury and the impact of sympathetic stimulation and exercise training. Auton Neurosci 2021; 235:102867. [PMID: 34399294 DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2021.102867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Injury to descending autonomic (sympathetic) pathways is common after high-level spinal cord injury (SCI) and associated with abnormal blood pressure and heart rate regulation. In individuals with high-level SCI, abnormal sympathovagal balance (such as during autonomic dysreflexia; paroxysmal hypertension provoked by sensory stimuli below the injury) is proarrhythmogenic. Exercise training is a key component of SCI rehabilitation and management of cardiovascular disease risk, but it is unclear whether exercise training influences susceptibility to cardiac arrhythmia. We aimed to evaluate: (i) whether susceptibility to arrhythmia increases in a rodent-model of SCI; (ii) the impact of the sympathomimetic drug dobutamine (DOB) on arrhythmia risk; (iii) whether exercise training ameliorates arrhythmia risk. Twenty-one Wistar rats were divided into 3 subgroups: T2-contusive SCI (T2, n = 7), T2-contusive SCI completing passive hindlimb cycling training (PHLC, n = 7), and T10-contusive SCI (T10, n = 7). Known electrocardiographic arrhythmia markers and heart rate variability parameters were evaluated before (PRE), 1-week (POST) and 5-weeks post-SCI (TERM) at baseline and during DOB infusion (30 μg/kg/min). Baseline markers of arrhythmia risk were increased in both T2 and T10 animals. DOB decreased R-R interval (p < 0.001), and increased markers of risk for ventricular arrhythmia, particularly in high-level (T2) animals (p < 0.05). Exercise training blunted the exacerbation of markers of arrhythmia risk in the presence of DOB. Markers of risk for cardiac arrhythmia are increased in experimental SCI, and DOB further increases arrhythmia risk in high-level SCI. Exercise training did not improve markers of arrhythmia risk at rest, but did ameliorate markers of arrhythmia risk during sympathetic stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera-Ellen M Lucci
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada; International Collaboration on Repair and Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Emma L Harrison
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Kathryn M DeVeau
- Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, KY, United States of America
| | - Kathryn A Harman
- Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, KY, United States of America
| | - Jordan W Squair
- International Collaboration on Repair and Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Andrei Krassioukov
- International Collaboration on Repair and Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, British Columbia, Canada
| | - David S K Magnuson
- Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, KY, United States of America
| | - Christopher R West
- International Collaboration on Repair and Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, British Columbia, Canada; Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia (UBC), British Columbia, Canada
| | - Victoria E Claydon
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada; International Collaboration on Repair and Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, British Columbia, Canada.
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Harman KA, DeVeau KM, Squair JW, West CR, Krassioukov AV, Magnuson DSK. Effects of early exercise training on the severity of autonomic dysreflexia following incomplete spinal cord injury in rodents. Physiol Rep 2021; 9:e14969. [PMID: 34337884 PMCID: PMC8327165 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemodynamic instability and cardiovascular (CV) dysfunction are hallmarks of patients living with cervical and high thoracic spinal cord injuries (SCI). Individuals experience bouts of autonomic dysreflexia (AD) and persistent hypotension which hamper the activities of daily living. Despite the widespread use of exercise training to improve health and CV function after SCI, little is known about how different training modalities impact hemodynamic stability and severity of AD in a model of incomplete SCI. In this study, we used implantable telemetry devices to assess animals with T2 contusions following 3.5 weeks of exercise training initiated 8 days post-injury: passive hindlimb cycling (T2-CYC, n = 5) or active forelimb swimming (T2-SW, n = 6). Uninjured and non-exercised SCI control groups were also included (CON, n = 6; T2-CON, n = 7; T10-CON, n = 6). Five weeks post-injury, both T2-CON and T2-CYC presented with resting hypotension compared to uninjured CON and T10-CON groups; no differences were noted in resting blood pressure in T2-SW versus CON and T10-CON. Furthermore, pressor responses to colorectal distention (AD) were larger in all T2-injured groups compared to T10-CON, and were not attenuated by either form of exercise training. Interestingly, when T2-injured animals were re-stratified based on terminal BBB scores (regardless of training group), animals with limited hindlimb recovery (T2-LOW, n = 7) had more severe AD responses. Our results suggest that the spontaneous recovery of locomotor and autonomic function after severe but incomplete T2 SCI also influences the severity of AD, and that short periods (3.5 weeks) of passive hindlimb cycling or active forelimb swimming are ineffective in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn A. Harman
- Department of Health & Sport SciencesUniversity of LouisvilleLouisvilleKYUSA
- Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research CenterUniversity of LouisvilleLouisvilleKYUSA
| | - Kathryn M. DeVeau
- Department of Anatomy and Cell BiologyGeorge Washington UniversityWashingtonD.C.USA
| | - Jordan W. Squair
- International Collaboration on Repair DiscoveriesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBCCanada
| | - Christopher R. West
- International Collaboration on Repair DiscoveriesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBCCanada
| | - Andrei V. Krassioukov
- International Collaboration on Repair DiscoveriesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverBCCanada
- GF Strong Rehabilitation CentreVancouver Health AuthorityVancouverCanada
| | - David S. K. Magnuson
- Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research CenterUniversity of LouisvilleLouisvilleKYUSA
- Department of Neurological SurgeryUniversity of LouisvilleLouisvilleKYUSA
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Brakel K, Aceves AR, Aceves M, Hierholzer A, Nguyen QN, Hook MA. Depression-like behavior corresponds with cardiac changes in a rodent model of spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 2019; 320:112969. [PMID: 31158357 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2019.112969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In previous studies we have shown that approximately 1/3 of male Sprague Dawley rats develop symptoms of depression following a spinal cord injury (SCI). Using established behavioral tests to measure depression in rodents, we found that after SCI, subjects characterized as depressed had decreased sucrose preference, open field activity, social exploration, and burrowing behavior. As some of these tests of depression could be affected by the compromised motor function inherent to the SCI condition, the current study examined whether non-subjective, physiological differences in heart rate and heart rate variability were also associated with depression, as seen in humans. Male Sprague Dawley rats were implanted with radiotelemetry devices and either received a moderate contusion injury or remained intact. The implanted telemetry devices recorded home cage activity, body temperature, heart rate, and heart rate variability for 5 min/h throughout a 30-day post-injury assessment period. Depression behavior was evaluated using a battery of tests conducted on days 9-10 and 19-20 post-injury. Locomotor recovery and pain reactivity were also examined. Hierarchical clustering, based on the behavioral scores collected on the tests of depression, revealed that 28% of the SCI subjects displayed symptoms of depression, relative to the remaining 72% of SCI subjects. The subjects characterized as depressed had significantly lower social interaction and burrowing activity than the group that was not depressed. Interestingly, the subjects behaviorally characterized as depressed also had significantly lower heart rate variability than the not-depressed intact group. There was no difference between not-depressed SCI and intact rats on this measure. Therefore, in addition to behavior, depressed and not-depressed rats differ on measures of physiological function that are associated with depression in humans. These physiological differences further validate the rodent model of depression after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiralyn Brakel
- School of Medicine, Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical Research and Education Building, Texas A&M University, Ste. 1005, 8447 Riverside Pkwy, Bryan, TX 77807, United States; Texas A&M Institute of Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Life Sciences Building, Texas A&M University, Rm 3148, 3474 TAMU, College Station, TX, United States.
| | - Alejandro R Aceves
- School of Medicine, Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical Research and Education Building, Texas A&M University, Ste. 1005, 8447 Riverside Pkwy, Bryan, TX 77807, United States
| | - Miriam Aceves
- School of Medicine, Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical Research and Education Building, Texas A&M University, Ste. 1005, 8447 Riverside Pkwy, Bryan, TX 77807, United States; Texas A&M Institute of Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Life Sciences Building, Texas A&M University, Rm 3148, 3474 TAMU, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Ashton Hierholzer
- School of Medicine, Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical Research and Education Building, Texas A&M University, Ste. 1005, 8447 Riverside Pkwy, Bryan, TX 77807, United States
| | - Quynh-Nhu Nguyen
- School of Medicine, Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical Research and Education Building, Texas A&M University, Ste. 1005, 8447 Riverside Pkwy, Bryan, TX 77807, United States
| | - Michelle A Hook
- School of Medicine, Department of Neuroscience and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical Research and Education Building, Texas A&M University, Ste. 1005, 8447 Riverside Pkwy, Bryan, TX 77807, United States; Texas A&M Institute of Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Life Sciences Building, Texas A&M University, Rm 3148, 3474 TAMU, College Station, TX, United States
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