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Qi L, Li G, Li P, Wang H, Fang X, He T, Li J. Twenty years of Gendicine® rAd-p53 cancer gene therapy: The first-in-class human cancer gene therapy in the era of personalized oncology. Genes Dis 2024; 11:101155. [PMID: 38523676 PMCID: PMC10958704 DOI: 10.1016/j.gendis.2023.101155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2023] [Revised: 09/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Genetic mutations in TP53 contribute to human malignancies through various means. To date, there have been a variety of therapeutic strategies targeting p53, including gene therapy to restore normal p53 function, mutant p53 rescue, inhibiting the MDM2-p53 interaction, p53-based vaccines, and a number of other approaches. This review focuses on the functions of TP53 and discusses the aberrant roles of mutant p53 in various types of cancer. Recombinant human p53 adenovirus, trademarked as Gendicine, which is the first anti-tumor gene therapy drug, has made tremendous progress in cancer gene therapy. We herein discuss the biological mechanisms by which Gendicine exerts its effects and describe the clinical responses reported in clinical trials. Notably, the clinical studies suggest that the combination of Gendicine with chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy may produce more pronounced efficacy in slowing tumor growth and progression than gene therapy/chemotherapy alone. Finally, we summarize the methods of administration of recombinant human p53 adenovirus for different cancer types to provide a reference for future clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Qi
- Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, Shandong 262700, China
| | - Guiqing Li
- Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, Shandong 262700, China
| | - Peipei Li
- Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, Shandong 262700, China
| | - Hongwei Wang
- Decording Therapeutics Corp, Shangha 200000, China
- Yangkun Biogroup Co., Ltd, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, China
| | - Xiaolong Fang
- Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, Shandong 262700, China
- Jinming Yu Academician Workstation of Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, Weifang, Shandong 262700, China
| | - Tongchuan He
- The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60290, USA
| | - Jingjing Li
- Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, School of Clinical Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, Shandong 262700, China
- Jinming Yu Academician Workstation of Oncology, Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, Weifang, Shandong 262700, China
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2
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Visser EJ, Jaishankar P, Sijbesma E, Pennings MAM, Vandenboorn EMF, Guillory X, Neitz RJ, Morrow J, Dutta S, Renslo AR, Brunsveld L, Arkin MR, Ottmann C. From Tethered to Freestanding Stabilizers of 14-3-3 Protein-Protein Interactions through Fragment Linking. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202308004. [PMID: 37455289 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202308004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Small-molecule stabilization of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) is a promising strategy in chemical biology and drug discovery. However, the systematic discovery of PPI stabilizers remains a largely unmet challenge. Herein we report a fragment-linking approach targeting the interface of 14-3-3 and a peptide derived from the estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) protein. Two classes of fragments-a covalent and a noncovalent fragment-were co-crystallized and subsequently linked, resulting in a noncovalent hybrid molecule in which the original fragment interactions were largely conserved. Supported by 20 crystal structures, this initial hybrid molecule was further optimized, resulting in selective, 25-fold stabilization of the 14-3-3/ERα interaction. The high-resolution structures of both the single fragments, their co-crystal structures and those of the linked fragments document a feasible strategy to develop orthosteric PPI stabilizers by linking to an initial tethered fragment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emira J Visser
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612, AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Priyadarshini Jaishankar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Small Molecule Discovery Centre (SMDC), University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Eline Sijbesma
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612, AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Marloes A M Pennings
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612, AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Edmee M F Vandenboorn
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612, AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Xavier Guillory
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612, AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - R Jeffrey Neitz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Small Molecule Discovery Centre (SMDC), University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - John Morrow
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Small Molecule Discovery Centre (SMDC), University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Shubhankar Dutta
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Small Molecule Discovery Centre (SMDC), University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Adam R Renslo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Small Molecule Discovery Centre (SMDC), University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Luc Brunsveld
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612, AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Michelle R Arkin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Small Molecule Discovery Centre (SMDC), University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Christian Ottmann
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS), Eindhoven University of Technology, Den Dolech 2, 5612, AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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3
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Nicolini F, Todorovski T, Puig E, Díaz-Lobo M, Vilaseca M, García J, Andreu D, Giralt E. How Do Cancer-Related Mutations Affect the Oligomerisation State of the p53 Tetramerisation Domain? Curr Issues Mol Biol 2023; 45:4985-5004. [PMID: 37367066 DOI: 10.3390/cimb45060317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumour suppressor p53 plays a key role in the development of cancer and has therefore been widely studied in recent decades. While it is well known that p53 is biologically active as a tetramer, the tetramerisation mechanism is still not completely understood. p53 is mutated in nearly 50% of cancers, and mutations can alter the oligomeric state of the protein, having an impact on the biological function of the protein and on cell fate decisions. Here, we describe the effects of a number of representative cancer-related mutations on tetramerisation domain (TD) oligomerisation defining a peptide length that permits having a folded and structured domain, thus avoiding the effect of the flanking regions and the net charges at the N- and C-terminus. These peptides have been studied under different experimental conditions. We have applied a variety of techniques, including circular dichroism (CD), native mass spectrometry (MS) and high-field solution NMR. Native MS allows us to detect the native state of complexes maintaining the peptide complexes intact in the gas phase; the secondary and quaternary structures were analysed in solution by NMR, and the oligomeric forms were assigned by diffusion NMR experiments. A significant destabilising effect and a variable monomer population were observed for all the mutants studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Nicolini
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Toni Todorovski
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Medicine and Life Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona Biomedical Research Park, Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eduard Puig
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Díaz-Lobo
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Vilaseca
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jesús García
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - David Andreu
- Department of Medicine and Life Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona Biomedical Research Park, Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ernest Giralt
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Inorganic and Organic Chemistry, University of Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1-11, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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4
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Fu Y, Wang J, Wang Y, Sun H. Investigating the Effect of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors on the Interaction between Human Serum Albumin by Atomic Force Microscopy. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12060819. [PMID: 35740944 PMCID: PMC9221072 DOI: 10.3390/biom12060819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
It is important for elucidating the regulation mechanism of life activities, as well as for the prevention, diagnosis, and drug design of diseases, to study protein–protein interactions (PPIs). Here, we investigated the interactions of human serum albumin (HSA) in the presence of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs: imatinib, nilotinib, dasatinib, bosutinib, and ponatinib) using atomic force microscopy (AFM). The distribution of rupture events including the specific interaction force Fi and the non-specific interaction force F0 between HSA pairs was analyzed. Based on the force measurements, Fi and F0 between HSA pairs in the control experiment were calculated to be 47 ± 1.5 and 116.1 ± 1.3 pN. However, Fi was significantly decreased in TKIs, while F0 was slightly decreased. By measuring the rupture forces at various loading rates and according to the Bell equation, the kinetic parameters of the complexes were investigated in greater detail. Molecular docking was used as a complementary means by which to explore the force of this effect. The whole measurements indicated that TKIs influenced PPIs in a variety of ways, among which hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions were the most important. In conclusion, these outcomes give us a better insight into the mechanisms of PPIs when there are exogenous compounds present as well as in different liquid environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuna Fu
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China; (Y.F.); (H.S.)
| | - Jianhua Wang
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China; (Y.F.); (H.S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Yan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Drug Design, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huangshan University, Huangshan 245041, China;
| | - Heng Sun
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China; (Y.F.); (H.S.)
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5
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Gilmiyarova FN, Kolotyeva NA, Gusyakova OA. Predicted and Experimentally Validated Lactate Characteristics: New Possibilities for Controlling Endothelial Cell Metabolism. J EVOL BIOCHEM PHYS+ 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s0022093022030176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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6
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Cheng X, Chen R, Zhou T, Zhang B, Li Z, Gao M, Huang Y, Liu H, Su Z. Leveraging the multivalent p53 peptide-MdmX interaction to guide the improvement of small molecule inhibitors. Nat Commun 2022; 13:1087. [PMID: 35228542 PMCID: PMC8885691 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-28721-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Overexpressed Mdm2 and its 7homolog MdmX impair p53 activity in many cancers. Small molecules mimicking a p53 peptide can effectively inhibit Mdm2 but not MdmX. Here, we show a strategy for improving lead compounds for Mdm2 and MdmX inhibition based on the multivalency of the p53 peptide. Crystal structures of MdmX complexed with nutlin-3a, a strong Mdm2 inhibitor but a weak one for MdmX, reveal that nutlin-3a fits into the ligand binding pocket of MdmX mimicking the p53 peptide. However, due to distinct flexibility around the MdmX ligand binding pocket, the structures are missing many important intermolecular interactions that exist in the MdmX/p53 peptide and Mdm2/nultin-3a complexes. By targeting these flexible regions, we identify allosteric and additive fragments that enhance the binding affinity of nutlin-3a for MdmX, leading to potent Mdm2/MdmX inhibitors with anticancer activity. Our work provides a practical approach to drug design for signal transduction therapy. Peptide fragments derived from the interfaces of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) provide useful templates for designing small molecule PPI inhibitors. Here, the authors utilize the multivalency of an MdmX-binding p53 peptide to develop a weak inhibitor of MdmX into potent Mdm2/MdmX inhibitors.
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7
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Reutershan MH, Machacek MR, Altman MD, Bogen S, Cai M, Cammarano C, Chen D, Christopher M, Cryan J, Daublain P, Fradera X, Geda P, Goldenblatt P, Hill AD, Kemper RA, Kutilek V, Li C, Martinez M, McCoy M, Nair L, Pan W, Thompson CF, Scapin G, Shizuka M, Spatz ML, Steinhuebel D, Sun B, Voss ME, Wang X, Yang L, Yeh TC, Dussault I, Marshall CG, Trotter BW. Discovery of MK-4688: an Efficient Inhibitor of the HDM2-p53 Protein-Protein Interaction. J Med Chem 2021; 64:16213-16241. [PMID: 34714078 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Identification of low-dose, low-molecular-weight, drug-like inhibitors of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) is a challenging area of research. Despite the challenges, the therapeutic potential of PPI inhibition has driven significant efforts toward this goal. Adding to recent success in this area, we describe herein our efforts to optimize a novel purine carboxylic acid-derived inhibitor of the HDM2-p53 PPI into a series of low-projected dose inhibitors with overall favorable pharmacokinetic and physical properties. Ultimately, a strategy focused on leveraging known binding hot spots coupled with biostructural information to guide the design of conformationally constrained analogs and a focus on efficiency metrics led to the discovery of MK-4688 (compound 56), a highly potent, selective, and low-molecular-weight inhibitor suitable for clinical investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael H Reutershan
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Michelle R Machacek
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Michael D Altman
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Stephane Bogen
- Merck & Co., Inc., 2015 Galloping Hill Rd, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07032, United States
| | - Mingmei Cai
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Carolyn Cammarano
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Dapeng Chen
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Matthew Christopher
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - John Cryan
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Pierre Daublain
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Xavier Fradera
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Prasanthi Geda
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Peter Goldenblatt
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Armetta D Hill
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Raymond A Kemper
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Victoria Kutilek
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Chaomin Li
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Michelle Martinez
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Mark McCoy
- Merck & Co., Inc., 2015 Galloping Hill Rd, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07032, United States
| | - Latha Nair
- Merck & Co., Inc., 2015 Galloping Hill Rd, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07032, United States
| | - Weidong Pan
- Merck & Co., Inc., 2015 Galloping Hill Rd, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07032, United States
| | | | - Giovanna Scapin
- Merck & Co., Inc., 2015 Galloping Hill Rd, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07032, United States
| | - Manami Shizuka
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Marianne L Spatz
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Dietrich Steinhuebel
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Binyuan Sun
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Matthew E Voss
- Albany Molecular Research Inc., 61 Science Park Road, Singapore (West) 117525, Singapore
| | - Xiao Wang
- Merck & Co., Inc., 126 East Lincoln Avenue, Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Liping Yang
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Tammie C Yeh
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Isabelle Dussault
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - C Gary Marshall
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - B Wesley Trotter
- Merck & Co., Inc., 33 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
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Abdel-Magid AF. Reactivation of the Guardian of the Genome P53: A Promising Strategy for Treatment of Cancer. ACS Med Chem Lett 2021; 12:331-333. [PMID: 33738057 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.1c00098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed F. Abdel-Magid
- Therachem Research Medilab, LLC, 100 Jade Park, Chelsea, Alabama 35043, United States
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9
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Falcicchio M, Ward JA, Macip S, Doveston RG. Regulation of p53 by the 14-3-3 protein interaction network: new opportunities for drug discovery in cancer. Cell Death Discov 2020; 6:126. [PMID: 33298896 PMCID: PMC7669891 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-020-00362-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Most cancers evolve to disable the p53 pathway, a key tumour suppressor mechanism that prevents transformation and malignant cell growth. However, only ~50% exhibit inactivating mutations of p53, while in the rest its activity is suppressed by changes in the proteins that modulate the pathway. Therefore, restoring p53 activity in cells in which it is still wild type is a highly attractive therapeutic strategy that could be effective in many different cancer types. To this end, drugs can be used to stabilise p53 levels by modulating its regulatory pathways. However, despite the emergence of promising strategies, drug development has stalled in clinical trials. The need for alternative approaches has shifted the spotlight to the 14-3-3 family of proteins, which strongly influence p53 stability and transcriptional activity through direct and indirect interactions. Here, we present the first detailed review of how 14-3-3 proteins regulate p53, with special emphasis on the mechanisms involved in their binding to different members of the pathway. This information will be important to design new compounds that can reactivate p53 in cancer cells by influencing protein-protein interactions. The intricate relationship between the 14-3-3 isoforms and the p53 pathway suggests that many potential drug targets for p53 reactivation could be identified and exploited to design novel antineoplastic therapies with a wide range of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Falcicchio
- Leicester Institute for Structural and Chemical Biology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
- School of Chemistry, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Jake A Ward
- Leicester Institute for Structural and Chemical Biology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
- Mechanisms of Cancer and Ageing Lab, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Salvador Macip
- Mechanisms of Cancer and Ageing Lab, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK.
- FoodLab, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Richard G Doveston
- Leicester Institute for Structural and Chemical Biology, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK.
- School of Chemistry, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK.
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