1
|
Razaq N, Asghar A, Mumtaz A, Al-Mijalli SH, Nisa MU, Riaz T, Iqbal M, Shahid B. Synthesis of biologically active cefpodoxime and vanillin-based schiff base metal complexes with the detailed biological evaluations. Biometals 2024:10.1007/s10534-024-00601-5. [PMID: 38864936 DOI: 10.1007/s10534-024-00601-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
Schiff bases of existing antimicrobial drugs are an area, which is still to be comprehensively explored to improve drug efficiency against consistently resisting bacterial species. In this study, we have targeted a new and eco-friendly method of condensation reaction that allows the "green synthesis" as well as improved biological efficacy. The transition metal complexes of cefpodoxime with well-enhanced biological activities were synthesized. The condensation reaction product of cefpodoxime and vanillin was further reacted with suitable metal salts of [Mn (II), Cu (II), Fe (II), Zn (II), and Ni (II)] with 1:2 molar ratio (metal: ligand). The characterization of all the products were carried out by using UV-Visible, elemental analyzer, FTIR, 1H-NMR, ICP-OES, and LC-MS. Electronic data obtained by UV-Visible proved the octahedral geometry of metal complexes. The biological activities Schiff base ligand and its transition metal complexes were tested by using in-vitro anti-bacterial analysis against various Gram-negative, as well as Gram-positive bacterial strains. Proteinase and protein denaturation inhibition assays were utilized to evaluate the products in-vitro anti-inflammatory activities. The in vitro antioxidant activity of the ligand and its complexes was evaluated by utilizing the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) in-vitro method. The final results proved metal complexes to be more effective against bacterial microorganisms as compared to respective parent drug as well as their free ligands. Patch Dock, a molecular docking tool, was used to dock complexes 1a-5e with the crystal structure of GlcN-6-P synthase (ID: 1MOQ). According to the docking results, complex 2b exhibited a highest score (8,882; ACE = -580.43 kcal/mol) that is well correlated with a high inhibition as compared to other complexes which corresponds to the antibacterial screening outcomes.
Collapse
Grants
- Project number (PNURSP2024R158) This research was funded by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2024R158), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- Project number (PNURSP2024R158) This research was funded by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2024R158), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- Project number (PNURSP2024R158) This research was funded by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2024R158), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- Project number (PNURSP2024R158) This research was funded by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2024R158), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- Project number (PNURSP2024R158) This research was funded by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2024R158), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- Project number (PNURSP2024R158) This research was funded by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2024R158), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- Project number (PNURSP2024R158) This research was funded by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2024R158), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
- Project number (PNURSP2024R158) This research was funded by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2024R158), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Naeem Razaq
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Science and Technology, University of Education, Township, Lahore, 54770, Pakistan
| | - Amina Asghar
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Science and Technology, University of Education, Township, Lahore, 54770, Pakistan.
| | - Amna Mumtaz
- ACRC PCSIR Laboratories Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Samiah H Al-Mijalli
- Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, 11671, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mehr Un Nisa
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Tauheeda Riaz
- Department of Chemistry, Government College Women University Sialkot, Sialkot, 51310, Pakistan
| | - Munawar Iqbal
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Science and Technology, University of Education, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Bilal Shahid
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Science and Technology, University of Education, Township, Lahore, 54770, Pakistan.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Costa FS, Moreira LS, Ludovico LL, Volpe J, de Oliveira AC, Dos Santos MP, da Silva EGP, Souto DEP, Grassi MT, Gonzalez MH, Amaral CDB. Microwave-assisted extraction based on emulsion breaking with natural deep eutectic solvent for vegetable oil sample preparation prior to elemental determination by ICP OES. Talanta 2024; 266:125108. [PMID: 37651914 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2023.125108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
This study presents a novel and efficient method for the extraction of Al, Ca, Cr, Cu, K, Mg, Mn, and Zn in vegetable oil samples using a Natural Deep Eutectic Solvent (NADES) as an extractor combined with microwave radiation (MW) in an emulsion system. The NADES prepared with choline chloride:oxalic acid:water (1:1:4 molar ratio) provided a high extraction rate using 5.0 mL of the sample, 1.7 mL of NADES, and 1.3 mL of Triton X-100. The optimum conditions were obtained with 36 s of vortexing, 5 min of extraction, and 10 s for emulsion-breaking in MW. Under these conditions, recoveries ranged from 91% to 110% and relative standard deviations <9.0% were obtained. The limit of quantification (mg kg-1) was: 0.018 (Al), 0.032 (Ca), 0.007 (Cr), 0.006 (Cu), 0.013 (K), 0.027 (Mg), 0.002 (Mn), and 0.019 (Zn). The proposed method showed comparable results to reference methods and advantages, such as speed, low cost, and simplicity. The combination of NADES and MW represents a sustainable and innovative approach to the elemental determination composition of vegetable oils and contributes to advances in sample preparation methods.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Luana Santos Moreira
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81531-980, Brazil; Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, 29075-910, Brazil
| | - Letícia Lima Ludovico
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Jaqueline Volpe
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81531-980, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - Marco Tadeu Grassi
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Mario Henrique Gonzalez
- Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, National Institute for Alternative Technologies of Detection, Toxicological Evaluation and Removal of Micropollutants and Radioactives (INCT-DATREM), São Paulo State University (UNESP), São José do Rio Preto, SP, 15054-000, Brazil
| | - Clarice D B Amaral
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, 81531-980, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Hashmi K, Gupta S, Siddique A, Khan T, Joshi S. Medicinal applications of vanadium complexes with Schiff bases. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2023; 79:127245. [PMID: 37406475 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2023.127245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Many transition metal complexes have been explored for their therapeutic properties after the discovery of cisplatin. Schiff bases have an efficient complexation tendency with the transition metals and several medicinal properties have been reported. However, fewer studies have reported the medicinal utility of vanadium and its Schiff base complexes. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of vanadium complexes with Schiff bases along with their mechanistic insight. Vanadium complexes in + 4 and + 5 oxidation states have exhibited well-defined geometry and found to be thermodynamically stable. The studies have reported the G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest and decreased delta psi m, inducing mitochondrial membrane depolarization in cancer cell lines along with the alterations in the metabolism of the cancer cells upon dosing with the vanadium complexes. Cancer cell invasion and growth are also found to be markedly reduced by peroxo complexes of vanadium. The studies included in the review paper have been taken from leading indexing databases and focus was laid on recent reports in literature. The biological potential of vanadium complexes of Schiff bases opens new horizons for future interdisciplinary studies and investigation focussed on understanding the biochemistry of these complexes, along with designing new complexes which have better bioavailability, solubility and low or non-toxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kulsum Hashmi
- Department of Chemistry, Isabella Thoburn College, Lucknow, UP 226007, India
| | - Sakshi Gupta
- Department of Chemistry, Isabella Thoburn College, Lucknow, UP 226007, India
| | - Armeen Siddique
- Department of Chemistry, Isabella Thoburn College, Lucknow, UP 226007, India
| | - Tahmeena Khan
- Department of Chemistry, Integral University, Lucknow, UP 226026, India
| | - Seema Joshi
- Department of Chemistry, Isabella Thoburn College, Lucknow, UP 226007, India.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Adamovich SN, Ushakov IA, Oborina EN, Vashchenko AV, Rozentsveig IB, Verpoort F. Synthesis, structure and biological activity of hydrometallatranes. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.119213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
5
|
Li B, Gong S, Cao P, Gao W, Zheng W, Sun W, Zhang X, Wu X. Screening of Biocompatible MOFs for the Clearance of Indoxyl Sulfate Using GCMC Simulations. Ind Eng Chem Res 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c00283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bihong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Shaomin Gong
- Department of Nephrology, Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Piao Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Weiqun Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Weizhong Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Weizhen Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhang
- Department of Nephrology, Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xiaojun Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai 200032, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Sigel A, Sigel H, Sigel RKO. Coordination Chemistry of Nucleotides and Antivirally Active Acyclic Nucleoside Phosphonates, including Mechanistic Considerations. Molecules 2022; 27:2625. [PMID: 35565975 PMCID: PMC9103026 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27092625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Considering that practically all reactions that involve nucleotides also involve metal ions, it is evident that the coordination chemistry of nucleotides and their derivatives is an essential corner stone of biological inorganic chemistry. Nucleotides are either directly or indirectly involved in all processes occurring in Nature. It is therefore no surprise that the constituents of nucleotides have been chemically altered-that is, at the nucleobase residue, the sugar moiety, and also at the phosphate group, often with the aim of discovering medically useful compounds. Among such derivatives are acyclic nucleoside phosphonates (ANPs), where the sugar moiety has been replaced by an aliphatic chain (often also containing an ether oxygen atom) and the phosphate group has been replaced by a phosphonate carrying a carbon-phosphorus bond to make the compounds less hydrolysis-sensitive. Several of these ANPs show antiviral activity, and some of them are nowadays used as drugs. The antiviral activity results from the incorporation of the ANPs into the growing nucleic acid chain-i.e., polymerases accept the ANPs as substrates, leading to chain termination because of the missing 3'-hydroxyl group. We have tried in this review to describe the coordination chemistry (mainly) of the adenine nucleotides AMP and ATP and whenever possible to compare it with that of the dianion of 9-[2-(phosphonomethoxy)ethyl]adenine (PMEA2- = adenine(N9)-CH2-CH2-O-CH2-PO32) [or its diphosphate (PMEApp4-)] as a representative of the ANPs. Why is PMEApp4- a better substrate for polymerases than ATP4-? There are three reasons: (i) PMEA2- with its anti-like conformation (like AMP2-) fits well into the active site of the enzyme. (ii) The phosphonate group has an enhanced metal ion affinity because of its increased basicity. (iii) The ether oxygen forms a 5-membered chelate with the neighboring phosphonate and favors thus coordination at the Pα group. Research on ANPs containing a purine residue revealed that the kind and position of the substituent at C2 or C6 has a significant influence on the biological activity. For example, the shift of the (C6)NH2 group in PMEA to the C2 position leads to 9-[2-(phosphonomethoxy)ethyl]-2-aminopurine (PME2AP), an isomer with only a moderate antiviral activity. Removal of (C6)NH2 favors N7 coordination, e.g., of Cu2+, whereas the ether O atom binding of Cu2+ in PMEA facilitates N3 coordination via adjacent 5- and 7-membered chelates, giving rise to a Cu(PMEA)cl/O/N3 isomer. If the metal ions (M2+) are M(α,β)-M(γ)-coordinated at a triphosphate chain, transphosphorylation occurs (kinases, etc.), whereas metal ion binding in a M(α)-M(β,γ)-type fashion is relevant for polymerases. It may be noted that with diphosphorylated PMEA, (PMEApp4-), the M(α)-M(β,γ) binding is favored because of the formation of the 5-membered chelate involving the ether O atom (see above). The self-association tendency of purines leads to the formation of dimeric [M2(ATP)]2(OH)- stacks, which occur in low concentration and where one half of the molecule undergoes the dephosphorylation reaction and the other half stabilizes the structure-i.e., acts as the "enzyme" by bridging the two ATPs. In accord herewith, one may enhance the reaction rate by adding AMP2- to the [Cu2(ATP)]2(OH)- solution, as this leads to the formation of mixed stacked Cu3(ATP)(AMP)(OH)- species, in which AMP2- takes over the structuring role, while the other "half" of the molecule undergoes dephosphorylation. It may be added that Cu3(ATP)(PMEA) or better Cu3(ATP)(PMEA)(OH)- is even a more reactive species than Cu3(ATP)(AMP)(OH)-. - The matrix-assisted self-association and its significance for cell organelles with high ATP concentrations is summarized and discussed, as is, e.g., the effect of tryptophanate (Trp-), which leads to the formation of intramolecular stacks in M(ATP)(Trp)3- complexes (formation degree about 75%). Furthermore, it is well-known that in the active-site cavities of enzymes the dielectric constant, compared with bulk water, is reduced; therefore, we have summarized and discussed the effect of a change in solvent polarity on the stability and structure of binary and ternary complexes: Opposite effects on charged O sites and neutral N sites are observed, and this leads to interesting insights.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Sigel
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, St. Johannsring 19, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland;
| | - Helmut Sigel
- Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, St. Johannsring 19, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland;
| | - Roland K. O. Sigel
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Crans DC, Brown M, Roess DA. Vanadium compounds promote biocatalysis in cells through actions on cell membranes. Catal Today 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2020.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
|
8
|
Samra MM, Hafeez H, Sadia A, Imran M, Basra MAR. Synthesis, characterization, docking and biological studies of M(II) (M= Mg, Ca, Sr) Piroxicam complexes. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2021.132256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
|
9
|
Riedel F, Aparicio-Soto M, Curato C, Thierse HJ, Siewert K, Luch A. Immunological Mechanisms of Metal Allergies and the Nickel-Specific TCR-pMHC Interface. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:10867. [PMID: 34682608 PMCID: PMC8535423 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182010867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Besides having physiological functions and general toxic effects, many metal ions can cause allergic reactions in humans. We here review the immune events involved in the mediation of metal allergies. We focus on nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co) and palladium (Pd), because these allergens are among the most prevalent sensitizers (Ni, Co) and immediate neighbors in the periodic table of the chemical elements. Co-sensitization between Ni and the other two metals is frequent while the knowledge on a possible immunological cross-reactivity using in vivo and in vitro approaches remains limited. At the center of an allergic reaction lies the capability of a metal allergen to form T cell epitopes that are recognized by specific T cell receptors (TCR). Technological advances such as activation-induced marker assays and TCR high-throughput sequencing recently provided new insights into the interaction of Ni2+ with the αβ TCR-peptide-major histocompatibility complex (pMHC) interface. Ni2+ functionally binds to the TCR gene segment TRAV9-2 or a histidine in the complementarity determining region 3 (CDR3), the main antigen binding region. Thus, we overview known, newly identified and hypothesized mechanisms of metal-specific T cell activation and discuss current knowledge on cross-reactivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Riedel
- Department for Chemicals and Product Safety, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany; (M.A.-S.); (C.C.); (H.-J.T.); (K.S.); (A.L.)
- Institute of Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Straße 2, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Marina Aparicio-Soto
- Department for Chemicals and Product Safety, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany; (M.A.-S.); (C.C.); (H.-J.T.); (K.S.); (A.L.)
| | - Caterina Curato
- Department for Chemicals and Product Safety, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany; (M.A.-S.); (C.C.); (H.-J.T.); (K.S.); (A.L.)
| | - Hermann-Josef Thierse
- Department for Chemicals and Product Safety, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany; (M.A.-S.); (C.C.); (H.-J.T.); (K.S.); (A.L.)
| | - Katherina Siewert
- Department for Chemicals and Product Safety, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany; (M.A.-S.); (C.C.); (H.-J.T.); (K.S.); (A.L.)
| | - Andreas Luch
- Department for Chemicals and Product Safety, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany; (M.A.-S.); (C.C.); (H.-J.T.); (K.S.); (A.L.)
- Institute of Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Straße 2, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Crans DC, Kostenkova K. Open questions on the biological roles of first-row transition metals. Commun Chem 2020; 3:104. [PMID: 36703349 PMCID: PMC9814583 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-020-00341-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
First-row transition metals play several roles in biological processes and in medicine, but can be toxic in high concentrations. Here the authors comment on the sensitive biochemistry and speciation chemistry of the first-row transition metals, and outline some of the remaining questions that have yet to be answered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Debbie C. Crans
- grid.47894.360000 0004 1936 8083Department of Chemistry, 1301 Center Ave., Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA ,grid.47894.360000 0004 1936 8083Cell and Molecular Biology Program, 1301 Center Ave., Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
| | - Kateryna Kostenkova
- grid.47894.360000 0004 1936 8083Department of Chemistry, 1301 Center Ave., Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
In this manuscript, we describe medical applications of each first-row transition metal including nutritional, pharmaceutical, and diagnostic applications. The 10 first-row transition metals in particular are found to have many applications since there five essential elements among them. We summarize the aqueous chemistry of each element to illustrate that these fundamental properties are linked to medical applications and will dictate some of nature’s solutions to the needs of cells. The five essential trace elements—iron, copper, zinc, manganese, and cobalt—represent four redox active elements and one redox inactive element. Since electron transfer is a critical process that must happen for life, it is therefore not surprising that four of the essential trace elements are involved in such processes, whereas the one non-redox active element is found to have important roles as a secondary messenger.. Perhaps surprising is the fact that scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, and nickel have many applications, covering the entire range of benefits including controlling pathogen growth, pharmaceutical and diagnostic applications, including benefits such as nutritional additives and hardware production of key medical devices. Some patterns emerge in the summary of biological function andmedical roles that can be attributed to small differences in the first-row transition metals.
Collapse
|